THE 
HISTORY 

or  NATIONS 

NORWAY 
SWCDLN 
DLNMARK 


ROLF  KRAKE,  SURROUNDED  BY  HIS  SMAA-KONGARS, 
SKALDS,  VIKINGARS,  AND  THE  BERSERKER- 
GANG,  HOLDS  COURT  AT  LEI  RE 

Painting  by  August  Malmstrom 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NATIONS 

HENRY  CABOT  LODGE  ,Ph.D,LL.D,,EDITOR-lN-CHIEF 

NORWAY  SWEDEN 

AND 

DENMARK 

by 

L.C  OTTL 

Edited  by 

EDWARD  SAMUEL  CORWIN.PhD 

Instructor  in  History 
Princeton  University 

POLAR  RESEARCH 

G  T.  SURFACE 

Research  Fellow  in  Geography 
University  of  Pennsylvania 

Volume  XVI 


Illustrated 


The  H  .W.  Snow  and  Son  Company 

C  }i   i    c    a    9?    o 


mux  I).  M(  )KKis  ,^-  cr)Mi'.\xy 


'I!  1 1"  II.  w.  S\"n\v  \-  sr)X  rf)M]\\\Y 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NATIONS 

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 

HENRY  CABOT  LODGE,  PL.D.,  L.L.D. 

Associate  Editors  and  Authors 


ARCHIBALD  HENRY  SAYCE,  LL.D., 

Prolcssor     of     Assyriology,      Oxford     Uni- 
versity 


SIR  ROBERT  K.  DOUGLAS, 

Professor  of  Chinese,  King's  College,  Lon- 
don 


CHRISTOPHER  JOHNSTON,  M.D.,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Professor  of  Oriental  History  and 
Archaeology,  Johns   Hopkins   University 


C.  W.  C.  OMAN,  LL.D.. 

Professor  of  ilistory,  Oxford  University 


THEODOR  MOMMSEN, 

Late    Professor   of    Ancient    History.    Uni- 
versity of  Berlin 


ARTHUR  C.  HOWLAND,  Ph.D.. 

Dcfjarlrnent  of  History,  University  of  Penn- 
svlvania 


JEREMIAH  WHIPPLE  JENKS.  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor   of    Political    Economy   and    Pol- 
itics, Cornell  University 


KANICHI  ASAKAWA,  Ph.D., 

Instructor    in    the    History    of    Japanese 
Civilization,  Yale  University 


WILFRED  HAROLD  MUNRO,  Ph.D., 

Professor    of    European    History.     Brown 

University 


G.  MERCER  ADAM, 

Historian  and  Editor 


FRED  MORROW  FLING,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Euroj^ean  History,  University 
of  Nebraska 


CHARLES  MERIVALE,  LL.D., 

Latn    nean    of    Ely.    formerly    Lecturer   in        FRANCOIS  AUGUSTE  MARIE  MIGNET. 


History,  Cambridge  University 


Late  Member  cf  the  French  Academy 


J.  HIGGINSON  CABOT,  Ph.D., 

Dc;)aitmcnt  of    History,  Wcllcsley  College 


JAMES  WESTFALL  THOMPSON,  Ph.D.. 

Department     of      History,      University     of 
Cliicago 


SIR  WILLIAM  W.   HUNTER,  F.R.S  , 

Labc  Dircctor-C.ei-.cral  of  Statistics  in  India 


SAMUEL  RAWSON  GARDINER,  LL.D., 

Professor  of   Modern    History.    King's  Col- 
lege, London 


GEORGE  M.  DUTCHER,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  HiUory,  ^Vcslcyan   University 


R.  W.  JOYCE,  LL.D., 

Commissioner    for    the    Publication   of   the 
Ancient  Laws  of  Ireland 


ASSOCIATE  EDITORS  AND  AUTHORS-Continued 


JUSTIN  McCarthy,  ll.d. 

Author  and  Historian 


AUGUSTUS  HUNT  SHEARER,  Ph.D.. 

Instructor     in     History,     Trinity     College" 
Hartford 


W.  HAROLD  CLAFLIN,  B.A., 

Department     of     History,     Harvard     Uni- 
versity 


PAUL  LOUIS  LEGER, 

Professor  of  the  Slav  Languages,  C(5llege 
de  France 


WILLIAM  E,  LINGLEBACH,  Ph.D., 

Assistant   Professor  of  European   History, 
University  of  Pennsylvania 


BAYARD  TAYLOR, 

Former  United  States  Minister  to  Germany 


CHARLES  DANDLIKER,  LL.D., 

President  of  Zurich  University 


SIDNEY  B.  FAY,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of   History,    Dartmouth   College 


ELBERT  JAY  BENTON,  Ph.D., 

Department  of  History,   Western  Reserve 

University 


SIR  EDWARD  S.  CREASY, 

Late  Professor  of  History,  University  Col- 
lege, London 


ARCHIBALD  CARY  COOLIDGE,  Ph.D., 

Assistant    Professor   of    History,    Harvard 
University 


WILLIAM  RICHARD  MORFILL,  M.A., 

Professor   of   Russian    and    other   Slavonic 
Languages,  Oxford  University 

CHARLES  EDMUND  FRYER,  Ph.D., 

Department  of  History,   McGill  University 

E.  C.  OTTE, 

Specialist  on  Scandinavian  History 


J.  SCOTT  KELTIE,  LL.D., 

President  Royal  Geographical  Society 


ALBERT  GALLOWAY  KELLER,  Ph.D., 

Assistant   Professor  of  the  Science  of  So- 
ciety, Yale  University 


EDWARD  JAMES  PAYNE,  M.A., 

Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford 


PHILIP  PATTERSON  WELLS,  Ph.D., 

Lecturer  in   History  and   Librarian  of  the 
Law  School,  Yale  University 


FREDERICK  ALBION  OBER, 

Historian,  Author  and  Traveler 


JAMES  WILFORD  GARNER,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of   Political   Science,   University 
of  Illinois 


EDWARD  S.  CORWIN,  Ph.D., 

Instructor     in     History,     Princeton     Uni- 
versity 


JOHN  BACH  McMASTER.  Litt.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  History,  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania 


JAMES  LAMONT  PERKINS,  Managmi  Editor 


The  editors  and  publishers  desire  to  express  their  appreciation  for  valuable 
advice  and  suggestions  received  from  the  following:  Hon.  Andrew  D.  White, 
LL.D.,  Alfred  Thayer  Mahan,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  Hon.  Charles  Emory  Smith, 
LL.D.,  Professor  Edward  Gaylord  Bourne,  Ph.D.,  Charles  F.  Thwing, 
LL.D.,  Dr.  Emil  Reich,  William  Elliot  Griffis,  LL.D.,  Professor  John 
Martin  Vincent,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Melvil  Dewey,  LL.D.,  Alston  Ellis,  LL.D., 
Professor  Charles  H.  McCarthy,  Ph.D.,  Professor  Herman  V.  Ames,  Ph.D., 
Professor  Walter  L.  Fleming,  Ph.D.,  Professor  David  Y.  Thomas,  Ph.D., 
Mr.  Otto  Reich  and  Mr.  O.  M.  Dickerson. 

vii 


CONTENTS 


PART    T 

THE   MYTHICAL   NORTH   AND  THE   AGE   OF   THE   VIKINGS 

400  c.c. — 1047  -^•i'- 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  The   Primitive   North     ......  3 

II.  Sagas  axd  Eddas — Medleval  Chronicles         .          .  7 

III.  The  Emergence  of  Denmark.     70  B.  C.-936  A.  D.     .  16 

R'.  Christianity  in  the  Far  North.     700-1047       .          .  25 
V.  PIarald  Haarfager    and    Scandinavian    Expansion 

863-1030      ........  34 

VI.  Kings  and  Heroes  of  the  Ynglingar  Line  in  Nor- 
way.    863-1047  .         .         .         .         .         .51 


PART    II 

SCANDINAVIA    IN    THE    ^HDDLE   AGES.      1047-1520 

MI.  Rise    of    the    Church    in     Denmark    under    the 

Estrhjsens.     i  047-1 134         .....       67 

\'III.  Denmark's    Age    of    Glory    under    the    \'aldemars 

1 134-1286    ........       80 

IN.  Norway  and  S\vi:di-:n  heforf,  the  Union  of  Calmar 

1093-1397 97 

N.  Denmark  and  the  Union  of  Calmar.     1286-1412     ,      110 
XI.  A  Centl'ky  of  Danish  Domination.     1413-1520        .      126 

PART    in 

THE    PERIOD    01'     ABSOLL'TE    MONARCHY.       1520-1771 

XII.  GusTAVus  \'asa  and  the  Swedish  Revoli'tion.     1520- 

i5^^o 147 

XIII.  The   Rise  (^f   Sweden    into   European    Prominence. 

i;6o-i6ii     ........      161 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XI\'.  GusTAVu.-^  Adolpiius  and  the  Thirty   Years'  War 

i()ii-i(j4S 175 

XV.  Denmark  in  Eclipse.     1513-1648       ....      189 

XVI.  Sweden's    Advance    in    Acquisitions    and    Prestige 

1644-1697    ........     204 

XVII.  The   Great    Northern    War    and   the    Decline    of 

Absolute  Power,     i 697-1 771        .  .  .  .214 

XVIII.  Benevolent  Despotism  in  Denmark.     1648-1771       .     230 


PART    IV 

MODERN    SCANDINAVIA.     1771-1910 

XIX.  Scandinavia  in  the  Age  of  Political  Revolution 

1771-1844 247 

XX.  Slesvig-Holstein.     1839-1885    .....     265 
XXI.  Constitutional   Government   in   the   three   King- 
doms.    1844-1910  ......     277 

POLAR    RESEARCH 
I.  Arctic  Regions         ........     295 


II.  Antarctic  Reihons  . 


v").")- 


III.  The  Present  Situation    ......     33S 

Bibliography        ..........     345 

Index  ..........     353 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Rolf  Krake  HOLDS  Court  AT  Leire  (Photogravure)  Frontispiece 


EN  j 


Karl   von    Linne 
Hans    Christian  Andersen 
Viking  Marauders 
Conversion  of  the  Danes 

VaLDEMAR     IV.     SACKS    WiSBY 

Abdication  of  Gustavus  Vasa 
The    Body    of    Gustavus    Adolpiius    Carried    to 
(colored)         ...... 

Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden 

Charles  XII.  during  the  Battle  of  Poltava 

Assassination  of  Gustavus  III. 

Oscar  II.,  King  of  Sweden 


FACING  PAGE 


12 
114 


Sweden 


184 
204 
220 
248 
278 


TEXT  MAPS 

Denmark  in  the  Age  of  the  Vikings 

Scandinavian  Exploration  before  the  XIth  Century 

The  Baltic  Lands,  early  XIIth  Century 

United  Scandinavia,  circa  1400 

Theater  of  the   Swedish   Revolution 

The  Baltic  Lands,  XVIIth  Century 

Scandinavia.      1638-1815 

Russia's  Acquisitions  on  the  Baltic     . 

The  Duchies  of  Slesvig  and  Holstein 

Arctic  Regions     ..... 

The   Circumpolar   Stations 

Farthest  North   (1906) 

A. \"r arctic  J-ii'iGiOxXS       .... 

]*kaky\s  Route  1908-1909 

Farthest  North   (1910) 


PAGE 

17 

43 

84 

123 

153 
177 

208 

253 
271 
296 
319 
323 
333 
339 
340 


PART   I 

THE  MYTHICAL  NORTH   AND  THE  AGE 
OF  THE  VIKINGS.    400   B.  C.-1047 


HISTORY    OF    NORWAY, 
SWEDEN,    AND    DENMARK 

Chapter    I 

THE    PRIMITIVE    NORTH 

THE  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  had  what  seem  to  us  very 
absurd  ideas  of  the  region  in  the  north  of  Europe;  for 
they  thought  that  it  was  made  up  entirely  of  ice,  snow, 
mists,  clouds,  and  darkness,  but  that  far  beyond  the  north  wind 
there  lived  a  race  of  so-called  Hyberboreans  or  Outside  North- 
winders!  The  fable  had  it  that  these  Hyberboreans  were  mortals 
living  in  perfect  peace  with  their  gods  and  among  themselves,  and 
dwelling  in  such  a  rich  land  and  under  such  bright  sunny  skies  that 
fruits  and  grains  ripened  there  without  the  care  of  the  husband- 
man. Plenty  abounded  everywhere.  No  one  suffered  pain  or 
illness  of  any  kind,  and,  therefore,  since  the  old  men  and  women 
in  that  blessed  land  did  not  die,  as  elsewhere,  from  disease  or  weak- 
ness, those  who  grew  weary  of  existence  put  a  speedy  end  to  their 
lives  by  throwing  themselves  headlong  from  some  high  cliff  into 
the  sea,  which  opened  to  receive  them,  and  then  gently  closed  over 
their  bodies. 

By  degrees,  however,  men  began  to  doubt  whether  mortals 
could  find  such  charming  abodes  upon  any  part  of  this  earth,  even 
if  they  were  lucky  enough  to  get  beyond  the  north  wind;  and  so 
the  belief  in  Hyperboreans  died  out. 

The  most  ancient  account,  of  any  historical  value  at  all,  that 
we  possess  of  the  north  is  that  which  has  come  down  to  us  in 
abbreviated  form  from  Pytheas,  a  Greek  astronomer  or  trader,  who 
lived  in  Marseilles  at  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Pytheas 
was  sent  by  his  government  to  inquire  into  the  position  and  char- 
acter of  the  lands  to  the  north  from  which  the  Phoenicians  were 
bringing  away  amber  and  other  products  not  obtainable  nearer 
home.     Plis  voyage  along  the  western   coast  of  Europe  was  an 


4)  SCANDINAVIA 

enterprise  of  remarkable  boldness.  Considering  the  scant  facili- 
ties of  navigation  in  that  age,  it  is  hardly  to  be  wondered  at  that  his 
narrative  was  considerably  scouted  by  men  of  a  later  day.  Despite 
the  ridicule  of  Strabo  and  others,  however,  Pytheas  must  have 
been  what,  in  these  days,  we  should  call  a  scientific  traveler,  and 
the  little  that  we  know  of  his  labors  makes  us  feel  that,  wdiatever 
the  ancients  may  have  thought  of  him,  he  has  given  us  the  report 
of  a  careful  obser\^er. 

But  more  than  this,  some  of  the  very  features  of  his  narrative 
that  Pythcas's  critics  most  discountenanced,  and  most  relied  upon 
to  cast  discredit  upon  his  whole  report,  have  for  us  the  greatest 
verisimilitude,  and.  therefore,  the  greatest  claims  to  credence.  This 
is  especially  true  of  his  account  of  Thule,  the  most  northerly  land 
that  he  touched,  and  described  by  him  as  an  island.  Here  the  nights 
at  midsummer  were  only  two  or  three  hours  long.  Here,  also, 
amber  was  cast  up  by  tlie  sea  in  such  abundance  that  the  inhabitants 
used  it  for  fuel.  Finally,  he  described  an  extraordinary  phenome- 
non, whicli  he  calls  pncumon  Thalass'ws  or  "  lung  of  the  sea." 
Pncumon  TJialassios  was  of  neither  earth,  sea,  nor  sky,  but  a  blend- 
ing together  of  all  three;  a  something  in  which  land,  water,  and 
air  seemed  to  float  and  mingle  together,  producing  a  heavy  girdle 
round  the  shore,  along  which  the  feet  of  neither  men  nor  animals 
could  make  their  way,  nor  boats  be  moved  by  oars  or  sails.  For 
a  long  while  this  extraordinary  thing  excited  the  wonder  of  all 
who  read  or  heard  of  Pytheas's  account  of  it.  But  the  wonder 
has  ceased  since  it  has  been  discovered  that  the  "  lung  of  the 
sea"  was  a  common  name  among  the  Greeks  for  the  jelly-fish  or 
Medusa,  numbers  of  which  abound  in  the  waters  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  mn.-it  have  been  well  known  to  the  people  of  i\lar- 
seilles.  1  fence  it  has  been  not  unreasonably  conjectured  that 
I'ythcas,  wi-hing  fn  describe  to  his  friends  at  home  the  ajjpcarance 
of  ice  noriting  on  ihc  waters  of  the  ocean,  which  tliev  had  never 
seen,  (■onii)ar('(l  it  lo  ilie  shoals  of  jelly-nsli  wliich  fringed  their 
-!iores  iti  a  h"\'ing  girdle  of  moving,  white,  half-li'ansparcnt  matter. 

'I  liU'-,  though  the  identity  of  Tluile  was  for  many  centuries 
■';  matter  ot  wild  S])cculation,  assuming  in  the  Middle  Ages  somc- 
Ihiiiq-  of  the  im])ortance  that  speculation  as  to  the  source  of  the 
.\ile  did  hrfore  Stanley's  discovery,  and  though  its  exact  location 
iiiu^t  ])(■  conceded  still  to  !>(>  cr)njcc1ural.  yet,  on  the  basis  of  tho^e 
■<■'■}■   |"irti..n^   ',\    I  lis   narralixe    which    Strabo   and    oIIum's   ihonHit 


THE     PRIMITIVE     NORTH  5 

most  ridiculous,  we  may  conclude  that  Pytheas  reached  the  land 
he  set  out  for,  and  that  that  land  was  a  portion  of  what  we  to-day 
call  Scandinavia, 

According  to  Pytheas,  the  natives  of  a  land  a  little  to  the 
south  of  Thule  thrashed  the  grain,  of  which  they  made  bread,  in 
large  roofed-in-buildings,  where  it  was  carefully  stored  away  under 
cover,  *'  because  the  sun  did  not  always  shine  there  and  the  rain 
and  the  snow  often  came  and  spoiled  the  crops  in  the  open  air." 
These  people,  moreover,  enclosed  gardens,  in  which  were  grown 
hardy  plants  and  berries,  which  the}'-  used  for  food.  They  kept 
bees,  and  made  a  pleasant  drink  out  of  the  honey.  They  were  very 
eager  to  trade  with  the  foreigners  who  came  to  their  shores  for 
amber,  but  keen  in  making  a  bargain,  and  always  ready  and  well 
able  to  fight,  if  they  thought  themselves  ill-used.  This  picture 
of  the  people  of  northern  Europe,  about  the  time  that  Alexander 
the  Great  was  making  his  conquests,  or  more  than  two  thousand 
two  hundred  years  ago,  proves  to  us,  therefore,  that  they  were  not 
mere  savages,  but  had  already  learned  many  useful  arts. 

Modern  archaeology  is  able  to  supplement  and  fill  out  Pytheas's 
narrative  at  many  points,  but  of  especial  interest  are  the  religious 
relics  of  the  primitive  Scandinavians,  Undoubtedly,  tliese  ancient 
folks  were  Shamanists,  and  their  religious  practices,  if  not  those  of 
the  Baal-worshipers  of  the  Old  Testament,  were  at  least  very  like 
them.  Thus  they  let  their  young  children,  as  well  as  their  cattle  and 
all  that  they  held  precious,  be  passed  through  the  fire  of  a  Moloch- 
like divinity.  They  set  up  images  of  the  sun,  which  they  repre- 
sented under  different  forms,  as  circles,  wheels,  pillars,  and  similar 
figures,  and  they  used  great  metal  kettles  in  their  sacrifices,  remains 
of  which  have  been  dug  up  in  different  parts  of  northern  Europe, 
and  are  exactly  like  those  described  in  I,  Kings,  c.  vii.,  as  being  made 
by  Hiram,  the  Syrian,  for  Solomon's  Temple. 

Indeed,  traces  of  this  faith  are  still  to  be  found  outside  Scan- 
dinavia ;  for.  till  very  recent  times,  the  country  people  in  some  parts 
of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  and  even  of  England,  had  the  custom  of 
celebrating  the  return  of  midsummer-night  on  June  24  by  dancing 
together  round  a  large  fire  liglited  on  some  high  hill,  or  running 
three  times  through  the  fire  to  secure  the  fulfillment  of  a  wish. 
These  midsummer-night  dances,  which  were  known  in  Britain  as 
Beltanes,  were  nothing  but  the  remains  of  an  earlier  form  of  Baal- 
worship,  persisting  lonii;  after  their  real  meaning  had  l)ccn  forgotten. 


6  SCANDI^A^IA 

In  our  word  yule  we  have  another  vestige  of  the  former  worship 
of  Baal,  or  the  sun,  for  yule  once  meant  wheel,  and  the  yule-tide 
of  the  ancient  Northmen  was  the  winter  solstice  in  Decemher,  when 
the  young  men  with  loud  cries  rolled  a  large  wheel  down  hill  to 
celebrate  the  death  of  the  old,  and  the  birth  of  the  new,  year;  a 
wheel  being,  in  their  eyes,  an  emblem  of  the  year,  or  the  sun. 
Long  after  Christmas  Day  had  taken  the  place  of  the  old  yule-tide, 
and  men  had  bcc<^me  Christians,  they  still  continued  their  Decem- 
ber wheel-runnings,  without  knowing  why,  but  simply  because  their 
f(^refathers  had  di^ne  it  before  them.  Even  November  5  is  still 
celebrated  throughout  southern  England  with  bonfires  and  the 
like,  and  not  so  much  because  "  gunpowder  plot  and  treason  "  were 
foiled  on  that  day,  as  because  of  an  unconscious  reminiscence  of  the 
Druidical  obeisance  to  fire. 

To  the  time  of  these  primitive  people  and  practices  the  archae- 
ologists give  the  name  of  the  Bronze  Age,  because  of  the  substance 
of  the  weapons  and  utensils  that  have  been  recovered  from  that  re- 
mote ej)och.  E.vcntually  the  people  of  the  Bronze  Age  were  dispos- 
sessed of  their  lands  in  Scandinavia  by  a  people  who  used  iron 
weapons,  namely,  one  of  the  German  tribes,  who,  even  before  the 
year  500  v,.  c,  had  begun  to  crowd  from  the  East  into  the  vast 
region  lying  between  the  Baltic  Sea  and  Mediterranean  Europe, 
l^lie  particular  tribe  of  Germans  who  effected  the  conquest  of  Scan- 
dinavia were  the  northern  Goths.  This  j)co])le.  in  the  course  of  the 
second  ccntiu'y  v..  c,  reached  the  southern  shores  of  the  13altic. 
Gradurdly  they  forced  their  way  up  into  what  is  to-day  Denmark, 
and  thence  acrr)ss  into  sotithcrn  Norway  and  Sweden.  At  the  time 
when  the  Cimbri  and  Teutons,  the  advance  guard  and  forlorn  hope 
fif  the  German  in\asif)n  of  Rome,  were  being  encompassed  and  de- 
stroyed in  nortlicrn  Italy  by  the  Consul  ]\Iarius.  the  Goths  A\'cre 
succcs.-fu]1\-  con"i])leting  their  occupation  of  Scan(lina\-ia.  A  few. 
howc\er.  of  the  ])rimitive  tribes  lying  to  the  northeast,  across  the 
lialtic,  remained  com])aratively  imaffectcd  bv  tlie  ("lotliic  invasion. 
Tlie.-e  became  the  progenitors  of  the  modern  Lapps  and   l'"inns. 


Chapter  II 

SAGAS  AND  EDDAS— MEDIAEVAL  CHRONICLES 

OUR  sources  of  knowledge  of  the  Scandinavian  invaders,  or 
'  Northmen,  as  we  may  now  call  them,  are  of  two  sorts : 
the  accounts  of  contemporaries  and  the  literary  remains 
of  the  Northmen  themselves.  The  German  tribes  beyond  the  Rhine 
and  Danube  were,  from  the  time  of  Augustus,  pressing  the  northern 
frontier  of  the  Roman  empire  more  tumultuously  from  year  to 
year.  Inevitably  the  interest  of  the  Romans  was  directed  north- 
ward, Tacitus,  in  his  "  Gcrmania/'  treats  of  the  barbarians  in 
general,  of  their  customs,  religion,  and  political  organization,  and 
writes  for  a  moral  purpose,  via.,  to  emphasize  German  purity,  in 
contrast  to  the  laxity  and  viciousness  which  he  felt  sure  foredoomed 
Rome  to  destruction.  Several  centuries  later  Jornandes,  the  Visi- 
goth, writes  in  crude  and  ungrammatical  Latin  a  more  particular 
account  of  his  own  people,  close  kindred  of  the  Northmen,  Much 
later  still  is  King  Alfred's  translation  of  the  historian  Orosius,  in 
his  introduction  to  w'hich  the  great  king  reduces  to  writing  his 
conversations  with  two  travelers  from  Scandinavia,  Wulfstan  and 
Ohthere  by  name.  Finally,  a  frail  thread  of  real  historical  narra- 
tive may  be  gathered  from  the  works  of  contemporary,  but  alien, 
chroniclers  of  the  early  Middle  Ages. 

The  Scandinavian  sources  are  threefold :  compilations,  sagas, 
and  runic  inscriptions.  First  of  the  compilations  is  the  great  the- 
saurus of  Danish  myth  and  tradition,  from  the  pen  of  a  pious 
monk  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  learned  Saxo,  surnamed  Gram- 
maticus.  Saxo  and  his  friend  Svend  Aagesen,  encouraged  by  their 
patron  Absalon,  greatest  of  the  primates  of  Denmark,  set  about 
to  compose  a  history  of  their  native  country  by  collecting  and 
writing  out  all  the  songs  and  tales  that  still  lived  among  the  peo])le. 

Of  the  sixteen  books  of  this  work,  nine  arc  entirely  mythical, 
even  to  tlie  pretended  lists  of  kings,  but  in  furnishing'  us  a  record 
of  what  the  Danes  themselves  believed  to  be  their  early  history, 
they  afford  indirectly  material  that  is  often  of  great  historical  value, 

7 


8  s  r  A  X  D  I  X  A  y  I  A 

("cmparablc  willi  Saxo's  c 'inpilalion  is  tlie  curious  work  llial  we 
owe  to  llie  patriotic  /cal  of  Jcliaiincs  Mao-iius.  Arclt1.)isliop  of  L'p- 
.^ala.  in  the  sixteenth  century.  "  The  liistory  of  the  (ioths  and 
Swedes  "  is.  howexer.  of  chstinctly  less  value,  even  as  a  storehouse 
of  folklore,  tlian  the  "  History  of  Denmark."  from  which  it  is 
largely  plagiarized,  its  narrative  being  vitiated  by  the  futile  en- 
deavors of  its  author  to  trace  analogies  between  Scandinavian 
chronologv  and  that  of  the  Bible. 

The  absurdity  of  Johannes"  enterprise  became  evident  when 
the  ''  Iltiinskrin^la  "  was  rendered  available  to  Europeans  Ijv  the 
scholar,  Resenius.  in  the  seventeenth  century.  This  remarkable 
book  is  a  compilation  of  the  sagas  of  the  kings  of  X^'orway  down 
to  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  work  of  a  remarkable  man. 
Snorre  Sturleson,  who  was  one  of  the  leading  figures  in  Iceland 
about  the  year  1220.  To  him  is  also  attributed  the  collecti<jn  (if 
the  ^'ounger.  or  Prose  Kdda.  while  that  of  the  1-dder.  or  I\)ctic  Rdda.. 
is  credited  to  a  certain  Saemund,  an  Icelander  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. Th.e  matter  of  the  "  Ilciiuskriiigia  "  is  historical:  that  of 
the  1-jldas  is  mythologic :  both  are  but  collections  of  the  tales  or 
sagas  of  the  pagan  skalds. 

The  term  sagas,  then,  designates  the  historico-mythic  tales  and 
ballads,  the  lore  of  whicli  was  garnered  by  Saxo.  Snorre,  and 
others.  They  were  composed  in  the  X'orroena  Mai.  the  u.nivcrsa.l 
language  (>f  Scandinax'ia  in  the  eighth  century,  and  transmitted 
trom  generation  to  generation  of  sk.alds  centuries  before  they  were 
reduced  to  writing.  The  skalds  came  thus  to  constittite  a  ]:)rofes- 
-ion.  who->e  ftmction  was  partly  that  of  entertainment  of  royalty — ■ 
r-ome  "^ang  their  la}-s  before  the  Bvzantine  cm^ierors — but  cliietly 
tliat  ot  national  historiographers.  Their  mar\-elous  attainments  in 
tlie  art  of  recitation,  th.eir  sheer  feats  of  memory  excited  the  ad- 
nu'ration  e\en  of  contemporaries.  Thus  it  is  recorded  tliat  one 
recited  -ixty  lays  in  a  single  night,  yet  declared  that  he  knew  as 
many  nioi-c.  Monarclis  were  eager  to  honor  those  who  had  it  in 
then-  jiowcr  to  ])er])etuate  a  rowal  name  witli  fame  or  obloipiy  or 
to  leave  it  to  -ink  into  obh'vion.  Thus  tliew  elevated  their  coteries 
of  d;ald>  to  the  liighe-t  oflices.  gave  them  their  daughters  in  mar- 
riage. ;.:!'l  e;  en  emulaled  tliem  in  their  high  calling.  The  Christian 
zeal  ot  M.  ()]:\\.  kMig  of  Xorway  in  the  mi<l(lle  of  the  elex'enth  cen- 
tury, broimiit  all  iln-  to  an  end.  The  fame  of  royalty  was  Iience- 
'"'■'h    1"   b'-   intrn-te.l    \n   tlie   iien-   of   monkidi   chroniclers,    ratlier 


SAGAS     AND     E  DBAS  9 

than  the  words  of  pagan  singers.  It  is.  however,  to  the  sagas 
that  we  must  go,  not  only  for  tlie  cosmology,  m}'thology,  and 
legend  of  the  early  north,  but  also  for  the  essential  spirit  of  its  life 
and  beliefs.  In  the  Icelandic  Eddas,  in  the  story  of  Beowulf,  and 
in  the  kindred  " Nibclnngcnlicd,"  we  have  the  "Iliad"  and 
"  Odyssey  "  of  the  Scandinavia  of  the  days  when  the  Vikings  plun- 
dered Christian  monasteries  to  the  glory  of  Odin,  and  Ygdrasil, 
the  giant  ash,  bore  up  the  world. 

The  term  j'uiic/  applied  to  the  letters  used  by  the  Northmen, 
is  derived  from  a  Scandinavian  root  which  signifies  to  car\'e.  The 
origin  of  these  characters,  sixteen  in  number,  has  k-ng  been  wrapped 
in  mystery,  but  it  is  generally  held  to-day  that  they  are  from  an 
ancient  Latin  alphabet  and  were  obtained  by  the  Germans  from 
the  Celtic  peoples  of  the  Alps,  \\nnle  mostly  applied  to  purposes 
of  necromancy,  witchcraft,  and  enchantment,  the  runes  were  often 
used  in  inscriptions,  which,  like  certain  Etruscan  and  Italian 
inscriptions,  proceed  from  right  to  left,  or,  in  some  cases,  in  both 
directions,  and  which  are  of  the  greatest  Iiistorical  value  in  that 
they  record  the  acts  of  kings,  many  adventures  of  lesser  personages, 
the  initial  efforts  of  the  Christian  missionaries  in  Scandinavia, 
and,  until  the  thirteenth  century,  even  the  laws.  They  afforded, 
moreover,  the  means  for  maintaining  intercourse  between  the  scat- 
tered offshoots  of  the  great  northern  stock.  Thus,  during  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries,  when  the  Northmen  had  extended  their  power 
over  so  many  parts  of  Europe,  letters  v;ritten  in  runes  were  fre- 
quently sent  from  one  prince  to  another,  and  could  be  read  equally 
well  at  Anglo-Saxon.  Frankish,  Gothic,  Russian,  Scandinavian,  and 
Byzantine  courts.  The  language  of  the  runic  inscriptions,  like  that 
of  the  sagas,  is  the  Norroena  Mai ;  and  a  study  of  them  makes  it 
evident  that  for  a  long  time  there  was  no  divergence  between  the 
language  of  the  north  and  that  of  the  Gothic  gospel  of  Ulfilas,  and 
even  to  this  day,  after  the  lapse  of  a  thousand  years,  the  identity 
of  this  tongue  has  been  essentially  maintained  by  the  Scandinavians 
of  Iceland. 

Scandinavian  wursliij)  centered  about  Odin,  yet  the  exact 
identity  of  this  divinity  is  most  perplexing.  AA'oukl  it  be  irreverent 
to  compare  him  to  Janus,  and  call  liim  two-faced?  At  any  rate,  in 
him  the  Northmen  seem  1o  ha\'e  worsiiiped  the  founder  of  their 
in'^titutions.  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  and  of  the  (I\-nastv  of 
►Skiolduiigs,  as  well  as  the  Alfadir.  tiie  C'rcator.  It  i>  in  tlic  latter 
'  L;ivi-^e4\.;mibaii(l,  "  li'uslnirc   (iciicrai',"    \'ol,    I  [.,   p,    ;\;j. 


10  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  ^  I  A 

guise  that  the  Eddas  present  him„  The  beautiful  son  of  Bor,  by 
the  daughter  of  a  Yotun,  one  of  the  primeval  giants,  he  slew  the 
most  terrible  of  tiiese  giants,  Ynier  by  name,  and  from  the  huge 
carcass  of  his  victim  created  the  earth,  which  he  set  between  Xifl- 
hcim,  the  rcahn  (if  iYo<t  and  darkness,  and  Muspehicim,  the  world 
of  fire.  On  the  other  liand,  as  tlie  founder  of  Scandinavian  insti- 
tutions— "  the  ]Mars  and  ]\lohammed  of  the  Xorth  " — Odin  is  sim- 
])]v  a  mortal  of  kingly  rank,  coming  originally  from  some  region 
Iving  to  the  east  of  tlie  Hellespont.  It  is  in  this  light  that  the 
"  llci}nskrin<jja  "  presents  him,  and  the  Christian  compiler  of  that 
work  goes  even  farther  in  his  attempt  to  rationalize  the  Odinic 
mvth,  translating  .\esir,  the  na.me  ai)plied  to  Odin's  attendant  gods 
in  \'a1halla,  into  "  Asia-men."  Likewise,  Saxo,  anxious  to  see 
paganism  left  without  ground  to  stand  upon,  concludes  that  Odin, 
a  mere  mortal,  won  divine  honors  for  himself  and  his  spouse, 
I'^^igga,  by  dint  of  magic. 

To  what  degree  the  cynicism  of  prejudiced  piety  saw  the  truth, 
it  would  be  unprofitable  to  s])ccu1ate.  The  character  which  Odin, 
whether  mortal  or  immortal,  finally  achieved  in  Scandinavian  myth, 
is  plain  enough.  He  was  the  Alfadir  who,  the  X'^orthmcn  believed, 
knew  all  things,  and  who,  in  his  character  of  All- father,  would 
survive  when  this  earth  and  all  the  lesser  gods,  or  Aesir,  had  been 
swallowed  up  by  time,  to  be  regenerated  according  to  the  good  or 
the  evil  that  was  in  their  nature;  for  the  religion  of  Odin  taught 
that  the  good  would  dwell  in  (iimli,  or  the  golden,  and  the  evil  be 
doomed  v/ith  cowards,  liars,  and  deceivers,  to  remain  in  X^astroend, 
the  low  strand,  in  a  dwelling-  made  of  serpents'  bones.  Jjcfore  this 
final  judgment,  Odin  Avas  believed  to  look  down  on  earth  from  his 
scat  in  Valaskjalf.  learning  all  that  happens  there  and  in  heaven 
frrim  his  ravens,  who  sit  one  on  either  side  of  his  head  and  whis- 
])er  into  his  ear.  Tn  the  hall  Valhalla,  with  its  fi\-c  hundred  and  forty 
gates,  each  wide  enough  to  admit  eiglit  hundred  men  abreast,  he 
rccci\-cd  all  brave  ami  good  men  after  tlieir  dea.th,  and  there  the  slain 
warrior>  ])nr-r.cd  tlie  life  tliey  had  loved  best  on  earth,  fought  their 
battles  o\-er  again,  li-;tencfl  to  tlie  songs  of  past  victories,  and  feasted 
ii'getlK'r  witlicnt  sorrow  or  ]iain  to  disturb  them.  Odin  was  sii])- 
])o-cd  to  award  his  s];ecial  fa\'ors  to  those  warrinrs  who  br(jught 
;';<ild,  (iv  olh("-  prccion^  snl)^1ances,  with  them  to  X'allialla,  and 
\\l"i  li.'id  led  an  ,'icti\c  l;:';.-  and  wandered  far  and  wide;  hence,  the 
Xnrilinicn    very    early    sli(jwed    the    gre;.'test    eagerness    to    gather 


SAGAS     AND     EDDAS  11 

riches  on  their  distant  voyages.  This  was  not  so  much  for  the 
sake  of  spending  their  wealth  as  in  the  hope  of  securing  a  welcome 
from  the  god  whenever  they  might  have  to  appear  in  his  presence. 
Thus  they  often  ordered  their  children  or  followers,  on  pain  of 
severe  punishment  after  death,  to  bury  their  riches  with  them;  or 
they  hid  them  away  in  places  known  only  to  themselves,  in  the  idea 
that  Odin,  who  saw  everything  that  passed  on  earth,  would  approve 
of  their  deed  and  reward  them  accordingly.  Odin  was  the  war- 
rior's god  par  excellence,  the  god  of  the  thane,  and  the  jarl, 
the  ancestor  of  royal  houses.  Thor,  the  red-bearded,  is  a  more 
rustic  figure.  As  the  god  of  the  peasantry  he  was  immensely  popu- 
lar in  Norway  and  even  in  Sweden,  and  occupied  as  honored  a  po- 
sition as  Odin  himself  in  the  latter's  own  temple  at  Upsala.  Thor, 
as  the  god  of  thunder  and  lightning,  Frey,  as  the  god  of  light  and 
sunshine,  and  Njord,  as  the  god  of  the  sea,  obviously  personify 
natural  forces.  In  this  aspect  they  are  thought  by  some  writers 
to  owe  their  place  in  the  cult  of  the  Northmen  to  the  Shamanism  of 
ancient  Finland.  Likewise  the  dwarfs,  artful  and  hideous,  and  the 
terrible  giants  in  which  Scandinavian  myth  abounds,  may  be  Fin- 
nish— only  in  another  sense.  They  may,  perhaps,  represent  Gothic 
caricatures  of  their  enemy's  heroes. 

The  life  of  the  Northmen  in  earliest  times  centered  in  the  village 
of  numerous  households,  standing  apart  on  their  individual  as- 
signments of  land,  yet  bound  together  by  devotion  to  a  sacred  tree, 
the  fetish  of  the  community.  Surrounding  each  village  w^as  the 
mark,  a  considerable  stretch  of  forest  and  meadow,  the  use  of  which 
was  common  to  the  freemen  of  the  village.  Life  was  very  simple 
and  the  wealth  of  the  villager-peasant  on  a  very  modest  scale,  in  days 
before  sea-roving.  "  Ohthere,"  says  Alfred  the  Great,  "  was  for 
his  country  a  rich  man.  He  owned  a  number  of  deer,  of  reindeer, 
of  cattle,  of  sheep,  and  of  swine.  Certain  Finns  paid  him  a  tribute 
in  hides  of  sheep,  otters,  bears,  and  reindeer ;  also  in  plumes,  ropes, 
copper,  and  whalebone."  This  was  in  the  ninth  century.  A  hun- 
dred years  later  possessions  were  of  a  greater  variety  and  marked 
the  advance  of  industry  to  an  agricultural  basis.  There  was  also  a 
quantity  of  the  precious  metals  at  hand,  obtained,  no  doubt,  by  the 
pillaging  expeditions  in  the  south. 

Political  organization  was  loose.  The  villages  cohered  in  a 
great  number  of  small  states  or  kingdoms,  whose  chieftains,  smaa- 
kongar,  and  their  immediate  personal   followers,   were  the  noble 


^o  SCANDIXAVTA 

I'arls.  and  were  invarial^ly,  however  remotely,  of  divine  descent. 
The  chieftain  held  his  followers  by  an  oath  of  personal  fidelity, 
which  carried  with  it  the  reciprocal  ohlig^ations  of  blood-relation- 
ship. The  chieftain  must  maintain  his  followers  and  share  all 
bootv  with  them.  The  followers  must  never  desert  their  chieftain. 
If  one  suffered  injury  at  the  hands  of  an  enemy,  the  other  must 
wreak  venq-eance  on  the  malefactor.  If  one  was  slain,  the  other 
must  destroy  the  slayer,  and  as  many  of  his  following  as  possible. 
Innocence  and  helplessness  were  not  spared :  attack  might  be  by 
night,  and  the  offender  and  his  might  be  burned  alive  in  their 
dwellings.  The  small  kingdoms  waged  unceasing  war  upon  one 
another,  and  the  markland.  akin  to  the  village  mark,  which  inter- 
\ened  between  the  petty  states,  was  the  scene  of  unending  tumult 
and  carnage.  Battle  and  feast,  indeed,  supplied  the  joy  of  life: 
and  of  death,  too,  for  that  matter.  For  in  Valhalla,  as  w^e  have 
seen,  the  recriminations  of  battleax  and  battlehammer  continued ; 
at  night  the  shades  of  the  heroes  seated  at  the  banquet  table  re- 
ci )\ered  from  the  wounds  of  the  day :  but  on  the  morrow  the  sav- 
age joust  was  renewed.  Of  course,  in  a  country  like  Scandinavia. 
no  part  of  which  is  remote  from  the  sea.  the  general  condition  of 
warfare  on  land  meant  piracy  on  the  water.  The  original  Vikings, 
or  Vikiuiiar,  were  sea-robbers,  rather  than  sea-rovers.  Lying  in 
wait  in  any  of  tlie  innumerable  viks  or  bays  that  fringed  the  coasts 
of  their  land,  these  Vikingar  would  dart  out  in  their  barks  to 
waylay  and  ])lunder  one  another. 

These  anarchic  conditions  prevailed  to  the  fullest  extent  till 
the'sixth  century.  But  just  because  of  them,  between  that  date  and 
t!ie  beginning  of  tlie  tenth  century,  Scandinavia  was  undergoing 
great  changes.  The  weaker  chieftains  were  succumbing  to  tlie 
stronger,  and  real  kingdoms  were  arising.  Internally,  better  order 
was  asserting  itself:  the  feud  was  giving  way  to  the  better  delincd 
and  less  j)ronii:>rii<'ns  blood  t'cud,  and  this  in  turn  to  the  practice  of 
("'impounding  with  money  and  goods  f(^r  injuries  indicted— the 
\\  ergild.  At  the  same  time  the  piratical  crafts  of  innumerable  small 
chieftains  were  dn-olid.'iting  into  the  considerable  fleets  of  great 
leader-,  who  were  willing  to  venture  over  seas  on  grand  enterpri>es 
against  the  nations  to  the  south.  This  is  the  age  of  the  Vikings,  tlie 
rc;il  -t'a-ro\cr-.  'ITc  <tr)rv  of  the  I'onndation  of  the  Scandinavian 
moiiai-cliics  will  he  i^ld  in  cfjnnection  with  the  history  of  Denmark 
and  ot  Xorwav  and  Sweden,  and  in  the  same  connection,  the  achieve- 


\1KI.\(,      M  AKAIDKKS     (.\KK\1.\(;     A     J-KMALI-;     (AIMUK     K  i      1  11  KIK     ItlJAl: 

AXC1H)KKI)     IX     DKK.l-     WATKK 

Painting    !>v    11.    Luminais 


SAGAS     AND     EDD  AS  13 

ments  of  particular  Viking  leaders  will  be  recited;  we  may,  how- 
ever, at  the  moment,  consider  in  a  general  way  the  spirit  or  moral 
disposition  of  the  northern  invaders  of  the  south,  the  motives  that 
prompted  their  enterprises,  and  the  results  that  came  out  of  them 
for  the  Northmen  themselves. 

What  were  the  motives  that  impelled  the  Northmen  to  their 
enterprise?  An  expanding  population  at  home  in  the  face  of  an 
inefficient  agriculture,  taken  together  with  the  growing  discontent 
of  the  jarls  at  the  developing  monarchies,  may  have  suggested  the 
idea  of  following  the  example  of  the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes, 
and  of  seeking  a  home  in  regions  outside  Scandinavia.  The  idea 
of  settlement,  however,  was  comparatively  late  and  arose  out  of 
the  earlier  expeditions,  rather  than  caused  them.  The  love  which 
for  a  long  time  the  early  Northmen  bore  to  their  homes  and  to 
the  religious  customs  and  social  habits  of  their  country  brought 
them,  at  the  end  of  the  short  summer's  cruise,  back  to  the  north, 
where  they  spent  the  winter  months  in  repairing-  their  shattered 
barks,  collecting  fresh  crews,  planning  new  expeditions,  and  feast- 
ing among  their  kindred  upon  the  rich  plunder  they  had  made  on 
their  latest  voyage. 

Some  writers,  reluctant  to  look  upon  the  Vikings,  who  pos- 
sessed so  much  innate  nobility,  as  mere  pirates,  have  ascribed  to 
their  raids  the  character  of  a  pagan  crusade,  to  which  the  worship- 
ers of  Odin  were  startled  by  Charlemagne's  attempt  to  Christianize 
Saxony  by  fire  and  sword.  This  motive,  too,  may  have  been  pres- 
ent, but  it  was  comparatively  weak  and  never  rose  to  distinct  con- 
scious expression.  What  the  Viking*  sought  was  treasure.  The 
amassing  of  treasure  was,  as  we  have  seen,  the  one  great  service  to 
Odin.  The  whole  plot  of  the  "  NibclungciiUcd  "  turns  on  the  pos- 
session of  a  mighty  treasure,  whose  acquisition  is  of  the  character 
of  a  religious  dutv,  calling  for  heroic  sacrifice ;  the  cosmologv  of 
the  Edda  gives  an  important  place  to  the  treasures  of  the  earth ; 
a  northern  myth  represents  gold  as  a  witch,  whom  the  gods  souglit 
to  burn,  but  only  made  more  attractive  by  refining  it.  Thus,  the 
Vikings  visited  the  British  coasts  and  sailed  up  tlie  French  rivers 
primarily  for  the  purpose  of  pillage,  but  to  pillage  was  a  labor 
invested  with  religious  sanction  and  bearing  the  approval  of  the 
Viking  Alfadir. 

The  dragon  ship,  rimmed  round  with  battle  shields  and  feel- 
ing its  way  through  the  fogs  and  mists  of  tiie  norlh.  well  S}-mb(,»li/:cs 


14  SCANDINAVIA 

the  mingled  gloom  and  heroism  of  the  Viking-.  The  Viking  was 
courageous  in  battle  beyond  all  description,  but  attending  his  cour- 
age was  a  deceit  and  treacliery  to  the  foe  that  knew  no  ruth. 
His  love  of  carnage  amounted  actually  to  spiritual  exaltation. 

"  We  hewed  with  swords.  We  reddened  our  swords  far  and 
Avide.  It  was  not  like  love  play  when  we  were  splitting  helms. 
IMightv  was  the  onset.  High  rose  the  noise  of  spears.  .  .  .  They 
hewed  with  their  axes.  .  .  .  Through  the  morning  they  fought, 
through  the  first  watches  and  till  afternoon.  The  field  was  aswim 
with  blood." 

Slaughter  had  to  the  Scandinavian  mind  even  something  of 
humor  about  it.  We  hear  of  one  of  the  leader's  receiving  the 
epithet  Born — "  Child  " — because  he  had  been  so  tender-hearted 
as  to  try  to  stop  the  sport  of  his  followers,  wlio  were  tossing  young 
children  into  the  air  and  catching  them  on  their  spears. 

The  dominant  intellectual  mood  of  the  Vikings,  however,  was 
not  humor;  rather  it  was  the  gloom  of  fatalism,  tinged  with  re- 
ligious devotion.  They  felt  the  pathos  of  the  brevity  of  life  as 
compared  with  a  great  will  to  achieve.  Said  the  Northumbrian 
chieftain :  "  O  King,  what  is  this  life  of  man?  Is  it  not  as  a  spar- 
row's flight  through  the  hall  when  one  sits  at  meat  of  an  evening 
in  wintertide?  Within  is  light  and  warmth  and  song;  without 
cold,  darkness,  and  icy  rain.  Then  the  sparrow  flies  in  at  one  door, 
tarries  a  moment  in  the  warmth,  anil  tlicn,  flying  forth  frcjm  the 
other  door,  vanishes  again  into  the  dark.  Such,  O  King,  seems 
the  life  of  man."  Yet  the  fact  that  life  is  transient  does  not  lessen 
the  duty  of  effort,  rather  it  enjoins  it.  Says  Beowulf,  about  to 
encounter  the  monster  Grendel :  "Each  man  nnist  abide  tlie  end 
of  his  lifework;  then  let  him  that  may  work,  work  his  doomed 
deeds  ere  night  come."  Though  in  the  crid  henx's,  demons,  and 
gods,  all  exce])t  Odin,  will  go  down  before  the  ])o\vcrs  of  e\il. 
the  noble  soul  will  strive,  unfaltering  and  undisnia}-ed.  vSays  tiie 
dying  r.eowulf:  ''Time's  changes  and  clirmces  I  have  al)ided ; 
held  my  own  fairly.  ,  .  .  So,  for  all  tin's  may  I  glad  be  ;it 
heart  now,  sick  though  T  sit  here,  wounded  with  death-wounds!" 
"Jdfc  wa.i  built  not  on  tlie  hope  of  a  hereafter,  but  on  the  proud 
self-conM-ionsiR"-^  of  udIjIc  souls."' 

The  e.\])L'(litious  of  the  \'il<ings  proceeded  o\  er  seas  in  all 
direction.-:  to  tlic  ea-t  the  Swedes  entered  ku>si;i,  to  the  west  the 
Xcjrse  l<Ainded  j^recarious  establisliments  on  tlic  C(jast  of   Ireland, 


SAGAS     AND     EDDAS  15 

made  settlements  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland,  and  discovered  Ice- 
land, Greenland,  and  North  America;  to  the  south  Danish  and 
Norse  expeditions  entered  French,  Spanish,  and  Italian  rivers, 
penetrated  from  Gaul  to  Seville,  burned  an  Italian  town  which  they 
mistook  for  the  capital  of  Christendom,  and,  in  short,  prolonged 
the  barbarian  invasions  for  four  centuries.  At  first  the  incursions 
of  armed  bands,  these  expeditions  finally  took  on  the  character  of 
occupations.  They  then  ceased  to  be  a  menace  to  Christianity  and 
civilization.  This  final  period  is  marked  by  the  Treaty  of  Wed- 
more  of  879,  by  which  King  Alfred  handed  over  northern  England 
to  the  Danes,  under  Guthrum,  and  by  so  doing  freed  the  more 
civilized  south  from  further  danger,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Clair- 
sur-Epte  of  911,  by  which  Charles  the  Simple  granted  the  Norse- 
man Rolf  (Rollo)  and  his  followers  all  the  lands  from  the  Epte 
to  the  sea,  the  original  foundation  of  Normandy, 

The  chief  result  of  the  Viking  expeditions  for  the  north  was 
to  open  again  the  communication  with  Christian  Europe  which  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons  to  the  British  Isles  and  the 
approach  of  the  Slavs  to  the  Elbe  had  interrupted  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, and  the  first  great  result  of  this  renewed  communication  was 
the  conversion  of  the  north  to  Christianity. 


chapter  III 

THE    EMERGENCE    OF    DENMARK.     70  B.C.-936  A.D. 

THE  numerous  small  kingdoms  of  Danes  at  the  beginning 
of  tlie  age  of  the  Vikings  fell  into  two  groups,  if  we  are 
to  believe  the  English  and  French  chroniclers:  the  Ost- 
manni.  who  were  harrying  the  British  coasts,  and  the  Danes  of 
Jutland,  who  were  troubling  the  French  realm,  or,  more  shortly, 
the  insular  and  continental  Danes.  Before  we  begin  to  discuss 
the  history  of  T^enmark,  we  must  turn  to  the  map  of  luirope  and 
note  the  position  of  the  lands  respectively  occupied  by  these  two 
groups.  The  Reid-Cotaland  of  the  Northmen,  that  is,  the  terri- 
tories of  the  western  or  continental  Danes,  were  included  in  the 
long,  narrow  strip  of  land  which  runs  almost  due  north  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe  to  about  ^y'^  45'  north  latitude,  wliere  it  ter- 
minates, at  the  extremity  of  Jutland,  in  a  sharp  i)oint  of  laud  known 
as  the  Skage.  Idiis  horn-like  jirojection  of  the  German  continent, 
\vhich  separates  the  German  Ocean  from  the  Cattegat  and  the 
smaller  channels  of  the  Baltic,  was  the  Chcrsoncsus  Cimbrica  of  the 
Romans,  and  now  includes  Holstein,  Slesvig.  and  Jutland.  1die 
]-'}'-Gotaland  of  the  Northmen,  wliich  was  o»ccu])ic(l  by  tlie  eastern 
or  insular  Danc>.  i:^  ccnnpri^ed  of  that  group  of  islaiids  between 
Sweden  and  continental  Denmark  which  we  know  under  tlie 
names  or  .Sjaelland,  h'unen  or  Fyen,  Laaland,  Falster,  Eangeland ; 
also,  the  i)ro\'inces  of  Skaania  and  Bleking,  on  the  eastern  or 
Swedish  side  of  the  .^ound,  for  these,  in  earlv  times,  formed  part 
of  tlie  ]")ani-h  monarchv,  and  for  many  ages  after  the  iniro(hicti<Mi 
of  C.Tristianity,  Lund,  the  chief  town  of  Skaania,  was  the  see  of 
the  i)rimate  of  I  )cn!iiari<. 

[•A'cry  one  of  I'lc-e  nanic^  tells  the  cliaractcr  of  the  countrv. 
l)cnniark,  mcaiiing  ilit,'  dai-kly-wooded  land,  rc\-e;i]s  the  fact  that 
once  the  Land  w;i^  den-cl\'  coxcred  with  somber  firs.  Skaania  took 
its  name  from  its  niancrous  mr)f,vs  and  mr^rasse-^,  skniDi  being  a 
moor,  in  ol.j  iiorilicrn;  i;Ul:ing,  \\hich  lies  .along  th.c  ^c;i.  froin 
l!''l\  ;i    ^iml;oth   bcacli;     l.aalaiiM.    f  i"' 'in   /(/:',   low:    Sjaelland.    from 


E  ]\1  E  R  G  E  N  C  E     OF     DEN  U  A  R  K 

70  B.  C.-300  A.  D. 


17 


sjoe  or  soCj  the  sea;  Laiigclaiid,  from  laiigc,  long;  all  these  names 
thus  showing  the  nature  or  position  of  the  land. 

According  to  Saxo  Grammaticus,  however,  Denmark  takes  its 
name  from  Dan  ]\Iykillati,  or  the  Famous,  who  is  reported  to  have 
held  sway  in  Jutland  more  tlian  two  centuries  before  Rome  was 
founded  and  nearly  a  millennium  before  Odin  appeared  in  the 
north. ^ 

This  latter  event  occurred  about  70  b,  c.  Odin  was  followed 
by  Skiold,  the  second  of  the  Skioldung  dynasty,  which  made  Leire 


^  DENMARK, 


k. 


in  Sjaelland  the  seat  of  its  authority.  In  270  a.  d.  a  namesake  of 
Dan  Mykillati  ascends  the  throne,  and  is  credited  with  having 
made  many  of  the  petty  monarchs  round  about  tributary.  Herein 
he  emulated  his  predecessor  of  the  same  name,  so  that  one  suspects 
a  case  of  mistaken  identity.  Next  comes  Frode  the  Peaceful,  or 
perhaps  Peacemaker,  since  he  is  said  to  have  sulnlued  two  hundred 
and  twenty-five  neighboring  monarchs  and  to  have  held  rule 
eventually  from  Russia  to  the  Rhine.  He  was  also  very  brisk  with 
thieves,  and  was  finally  able  to  leave  his  golden  armlets  by  the 
wayside,  as  a  sort  of  tantalizing  challenge  to  terror-stricken  cu- 

^  Vide  Suhm's  Calculations:  "ilistory  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway," 
S.  A.  Dunliain,   1.S3Q.     Vol.   J.,  pp.  r),v6_j,  ]\n{c. 


18  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  ^'  I  A 

300-730 

pidity,  as  he  journeyed  througii  his  kingdom  to  hear  and  compose 
all  causes  of  dispute  among  his  people, 

Frode's  fame,  however,  is  quite  eclipsed  by  that  of  Stoerkod- 
der,  the  northern  Herakles,  who  had  giant  forefathers  and  was  so 
hugely  strong  that  it  was  quite  impossible  for  anyone  to  contend 
with  him  safely.  Indeed,  according  to  th.e  legend,  he  never  would 
have  been  overcome,  even  after  old  age  had  lessened  his  strength, 
had  he  not  in  early  life  treacherously  slain  his  friend  and  brother- 
in-arms,  tlie  bra\'e  IIr)ther.  The  remembrance  of  tliis  act  so  weak- 
ened his  arm  tliat,  when,  in  later  years,  the  son  of  the  murdered 
man  attacked  him,  he  was  unable  to  defend  himself  and  soon  fell 
beneath  the  blows  of  his  foeman.  This  hero  is  rather  a  demi-god 
than  a  mortal,  for  he  is  heard  of  again  and  again  in  northern  his- 
tory, for  nearly  three  hundred  years,  and,  like  Odin  himself,  only 
disappears  after  the  battle  of  Bravalla.  Rolf  Krake  ranks  as  a 
model  of  all  the  kingly  virtues  esteemed  in  ancient  times  and  as 
a  pattern  of  royal  generosity  and  dignity.  TTis  valor,  goodness, 
and  justice  attracted  tlie  most  renowned  \'ikings,  skalds,  and  stran- 
gers to  his  court  at  Leirc,  and  he  was  so  much  beloved  by  his  own 
men  that,  after  he  was  treacherously  slain  by  lijartvar,  one  of  the 
smaa-kongar,  who  paid  him  triljute,  all  his  faithful  attendants, 
excepting  one,  followed  him  in  death.  This  one.  Vogg  by  name, 
remained  behind  to  revenge  his  leader.  When.  theref(jre,  the 
usurper  extended  his  sword  to  \'r>p;p;  to  receive  his  pledge  of  iulelity. 
the  latter  wrenched  awa}"  th.e  v^'capon  and  plunged  it  into  lljartvar's 
heart.  lie  then  met  his  own  death  at  the  hands  of  the  men  of 
Ocland,  without  uttering  a  cry  or  flinching  a  step.  With  Rolf 
fell  al-o  his  twelve  "  Berserker,"  the  bravest  of  the  brave,  taking 
their  name  from  a  practice  they  had  of  working  th.emsclvcs  u\)  into 
a  frenzy  of  rage  before  a  battle,  in  the  ci nu'se  of  which,  oblix'inus 
alike  of  heat  c)r  cold,  they  usually  stripj)ed  t;iemsei\-es  down  to 
their  Ixire  s;irk-^,  and  went  furiously  plunging-  at  everything  in  sight, 
the  "  bcrscrkcr-n^tniL;;." 

Tike  the  ancient  Greeks,  the  Northmen  had  a  batlle-])lain  on 
whicli,  according  to  their  best-loved  mytlis.  tlieir  gods  and  go(l(k's>es 
shared  the  foinunes  of  war  \vith  mortal  warriors.  Soandina\-ia"s 
Troy  was  in  l'".a-t  (iiiiM.and.  at  I'.rawalla,  near  ilie  i\i\-er  llraa.  I  lere, 
witln'n  ^ight  of  tlie  ln.^tile  lleets  that  lay  ninijred  in  tlie  Baltic,  gods 
and  nicn  arc;  said  to  ha\-e  mingled  in  e<ini])al  as  terrible  as  e\-er 
llomer'.-  imagination  was  aljlc  t«'  inx'ent.     The  battle  of   l'ra\-a!]a, 


EMERGENCE     OF     DENMARK  19 

750 

sung  alike  by  Swedish  and  Danish  skalds,  was  fought  between 
Harald  Hildetand  of  Denmark  and  his  young  kinsman,  Sigurd 
Ring,  third  of  the  Swedish  Skioldungs,  about  the  year  750  a.  d. 

Immense  preparations  for  the  fight  were  made  on  both  sides. 
While  Harald's  fleet  stretched  from  Sjaelland,  or  Zealand,  across 
the  Sound  far  up  the  coast  of  Sweden,  young  Sigurd  sailed  out  of 
the  harbor  of  Stocksund  at  the  head  of  two  thousand  five  hundred 
ships.  Odin,  who  had  long  held  aloof  from  terrestrial  concerns, 
seeing  all  this  vast  array,  and  hearing  from  his  ravens  that  Frisians, 
Wends,  Finns,  Lapps,  Danes,  Saxons,  Jutes,  G(Jths,  and  Swedes 
were  flocking  toward  the  field  of  Bravalla  to  take  part  in  this  great 
battle  for  the  mastery  of  the  north,  resolved  to  have  a  hand  in  the 
uiclcc.  springing  to  the  chariot  of'  the  aged  and  blind  Harald,  the 
jrod  carried  him  into  the  midst  of  the  fipiit  and  slew  him  with  his 
own  battleax.  Harald,  who  had  recognized  the  hand  which  guided 
his  chariot  so  firmly  through  the  ranks  of  the  foe,  had  implored 
the  god  not  to  forsake  his  faithful  Danes  in  this  hour  of  their 
peril,  but  Odin's  reply  had  been  that  he  himself  had  taught  the 
secret  of  victory  to  the  young  Sigurd  Ring.  Then  the  aged  Danish 
king  knew  that  all  was  over;  for  till  that  moment  he  alone  of 
all  living  men  had  known  the  art  of  ranging  his  army  in  the  wedge- 
shaped  form  which  he  had  learned  in  early  youth  from  Odin,  and 
which,  as  he  had  often  proved,  always  brought  victory  with  it. 
The  dead  lay  heaped  in  huge  piles  when  that  day's  fight  was  done, 
and  as  the  chariots  of  the  victors  passed  from  the  field,  the  bodies 
of  the  slain  which  fringed  the  narrow  road  reached  to  the  axle  of 
the  wheels.  Only  nobles  were  counted  among  the  dead,  but  of 
these  there  were  twelve  thousand  of  Ring's  army  and  thirty  thou- 
sand Danes. 

The  account  of  this  great  battle  ends  with  the  relation  of  the 
manner  in  which  young  Sigurd  Ring  honored  the  memory  of  his 
fallen  foe,  whose  remains  he  had  burned  with  great  pomp  and 
ceremony  in  the  presence  of  bijth  the  armies,  while  he  himself 
fed  the  burning  pile  by  throwing  into  the  flames  Flarald's  weapons 
and  many  golden  <ind  silver  ornaments  which  he  had  gathered  in 
the  course  of  his  Yil<ing  expeditions. 

Sigurd  Ring  is  a  very  slirulowy  figure,  most  of  whose  attributes 
and  achievements  are  borroued  from  Knud  the  (h'cat.  His  son, 
Regner  Lodbrog,  or  Leather-Leggings,  so  called  from  the  pre- 
caution that  he  took  while  attempting  to  gain  access  to  the  serpent- 


20  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  ^'  I  A 

750-860 

guarded  bower  of  his  Gothic  princess,  is,  on  the  other  hand,  con- 
siderable of  a  personahty.  The  greatest  difficulty  in  regard  to  his 
histon,^  is  that,  while  the  Danes  speak  of  him  as  living  in  one 
century,  the  Anglo-Saxons,  among  whom  he  often  appeared,  give 
a  different  date  for  the  very  events  that  the  Danish  writers  de- 
scribe. After  a  long  course  of  roving,  Rcgncr  of  the  Leather 
Leggings  met  his  death  at  the  hands  of  Aella,  King  of  Xorthumbria, 
who  caused  him  to  be  thrown  into  a  pit  filled  with  adders,  since  he 
would  declare  neither  his  name  nor  the  cause  of  his  appearance 
on  the  Xortlnimbrian  c(jast.  Regner  bore  the  torments  of  his  slow 
death  without  murmur,  simply  remarking  that  "  the  young  pigs 
at  home  would  grunt  loudly  when  they  found  out  what  had  be- 
come of  the  old  boar,  their  father."  According  to  the  sagas,  his 
sons  certainly  did  raise  a  clamor  when  they  heard  of  the  death  their 
father  had  suffered,  and  never  rested  till  they  had  taken  a  yet  more 
cruel  revenge  on  Aella. 

Landing  in  X(jrthumbria,  some  years  later,  with  a  large  lleet 
and  a  great  number  of  other  Vikings,  they  overran  and  pillaged 
the  country,  took  the  king  captive  and  killed  him  by  cutting  open 
his  breast,  tearing  out  his  heart,  and  by  carving  the  figure  of  an  out- 
spread eagle  on  liis  back,  slioulders,  and  loins.  After  thus  realizing 
their  vengeance  the  sons  of  Regner  are  said  to  have  divided  Aella's 
territories  and  cast  lots  for  their  father's  many  lands,  Ivar  Ben- 
los  taking  Xorthumbria,  Ilvitsek,  Jutland;  Bjorn,  Sweden;  and 
Sigurd,  .Skaania  and  the  Danish  Islands.  Anglo-Saxon  writers 
record  an  invasion  a  century  later  by  Danish  Vikings,  or  Sea-Kings, 
as  they  v^cre  often  called,  among  whom  we  meet  with  the  same 
names;  Init  they  do  not  seem  to  know  that  the  coming  of  their  un- 
welcome guests  had  any  c>tlier  mrjlivc  than  the  usual  one  of  i)illagc; 
so  that  Jiere.  as  in  many  cjiher  instancs.  it  is  altogether  impossible 
to  reconcile  the  accounts  given  by  norllicrn  and  luiglish  authorities 
in  regard  to  the  same  ])ersons  and  evcnt^.  Trntli  and  falsehood 
seem  to  be  so  intimately  mingled  in  the  earlv  history  nf  the  Danes 
and  clii-onoliigy  so  thoroughly  set  at  defiance,  that  it  is  hopeless 
to  attem])t  to  make  the  narrative  that  Saxo  gives  us  accord  with 
accounts  i)\  alien  ciironiclers. 

llic  red  ]]istr)ry  of  Denmark  !)egins  when  political  consolida- 
tion ha-;  gone  far  enough  to  afford  leaders  of  veritable  military 
e'q)cditions  again-1  tbc  l^-ankish  monarchy  to  the  south.  Such 
a    leader   w,-^    ('h'Viu   ik'u   C.-mile.    the   Old.   ^60-03^).   of   wlioni    tlie 


EMERGENCE     OF     DENMARK  21 

860-936 

Prankish  chroniclers  have  much  to  tell.  Gorm  is  said  to  have 
been  the  son  of  a  Norwegian  chief  of  royal  descent,  Hardegon, 
or  Hardeknnd,  as  some  give  his  name,  a  fierce  pagan  warrior,  who, 
wishing  to  better  his  fortune,  had  looked  about  him  to  see  where 
there  was  a  small  kingdom  to  be  gained  by  fighting  for  it.  Luckily 
for  himself  he  made  choice  of  Leire,  also  called  Ledra,  in  the  fruit- 
ful Danish  Islar.d  of  Sjaelland.  The  country  was  in  a  worse  state 
than  usual,  which  is  saying  a  good  deal,  and  Hardegon  did  not 
find  it  a  difficult  task  to  make  himself  master  of  it  and  to  turn  out 
the  rightful  king,  young  Siegric,  who  had  only  just  recovered  his 
throne  from  two  earlier  usurpers. 

The  people  seem  to  have  been  content  with  Hardegon  and 
when  he  died  received  his  son,  Gorm,  as  their  king,  as  a  matter 
of  course. 

If  Leire  had  been  only  a  small  kingdom,  like  the  many  others 
states  belonging  to  the  smaa-kongar  of  the  Danish  Isles,  Gorm 
might  never,  perhaps,  have  been  heard  of  in  history,  and,  certainly, 
would  not  have  found  it  so  easy  to  make  himself  king  of  all  Den- 
mark. On  the  contrary,  however,  it  was  looked  upon  as  one  of 
the  most  sacred  spots  in  tlie  north,  for  it  was  there  tliat  great 
sacrifices  to  Odin  v^ere  ofi^ered  at  yule-tide,  or,  as  some  writers 
say,  in  early  spring.  At  one  or  the  other  of  these  seasons  the  wor- 
shipers of  the  Alfadir  came  from  every  part  of  the  north  of  Europe 
to  participate  in  the  ceremonies  that  were  due  and  to  offer  gifts  of 
silver  and  gold,  precious  stones,  and  costly  stuffs  to  the  twelve 
high  priests  of  whom  the  King  of  Leire  was  ahva^'s  the  cliief. 
Such  offerings  as  these  could,  of  course,  only  be  made  by  the  very 
richest  men,  that  is,  by  those  chiefs  wlio  had  been  attended  by  the 
greatest  fortune  on  tlieir  pillaging  expeditions  against  the  people 
of  Gaul.  Germany,  and  Italy.  But  all  persons,  whether  poor  or 
rich,  were  expected  to  bring  to  Odin's  temple  a  liorse,  or  a  dog,  or 
a  cock,  lor  these  animals  were  counted  sacred  to  him,  and  were 
killed  in  large  numbers  to  do  him  honor  at  his  yearly  festi\als. 

Every  ninth  year,  moreover,  still  more  solemn  services  were 
enacted,  the  culminating  solemnity  being,  oftentimes,  a  human 
sacrifice. 

Thus  young  Gorm,  from  being  merely  brave,  clever,  and  am- 
bitious, was  able,  by  virtue  of  his  post  as  chief  pontiff,  to  become 
wealthy  also,  and  to  extend  his  dominions  beyond  the  l^oundarics 
that  his  father  liad  c^tabli-^hcd. 


22  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  xV  V  I  A 

860-935 

Before  the  close  of  his  reign  he  had  become  king  of  all  Den- 
mark ;  not  merely  the  ruler  of  a  small  kingdom,  but  the  one  monarch 
of  Jutland,  Slesvig,  part  of  Holstein,  Sjaelland,  Fven,  Falster, 
Laaland,  and  all  the  many  other  islands  occupied  by  the  Danes  be- 
tween Germany  and  Sweden.  ^Moreover,  he  controlled  some  por- 
tions of  Xorwr.y  and  the  Swedish  provinces  of  Bleking  and  Skaania, 
which  cnntin.ued  for  several  hundred  years  after  his  time  to  be  a 
part  of  Denmark.  How  he  transformed  his  small  state  into  a  great 
kingdom  no  one  knows.  The  writers  of  Danish  history  say  tliat 
he  did  it  by  buying  one  bit  of  land,  bartering  for  another,  seizing 
upon  one  district  and  getting  another  given  to  him,  and  so  on,  but 
this  does  not  make  his  success  very  clear  to  us.  We  know  only  this 
much,  that  Gorm  the  Old,  who  began  life  as  the  landless  son  of 
a  poor,  although  nobly  born  Norwegian  sea-rover,  ended  his  days 
as  king  of  a  Denmark  which  was  larger  in  tliat  age  than  the  Den- 
mark of  our  own  times,  and  that  a  part  of  his  good  fortune  is  to 
be  ascribed  to  the  union  in  his  own  person  of  the  functions  of 
priest  and  king  ()\'er  a  district  in'iportant  to  pagan.  Scandinax-ia. 

The  tale  of  his  achievements  as  a  V^iking  is  more  circumstantial. 
He  went  early  on  a  cruise  along  the  coasts  of  tlie  JKiltic  and  even 
joined  some  of  his  countrymen  in  a  hostile  incursion  into  Gar- 
derike  or  Ivussia,  where-  they  had  made  their  v/ay  to  Smolensk 
and  Kiev,  pillaging  and  conquering  as  they  went.  Xcxt  we  hear 
of  him  in  the  year  FS2  in  Germany,  where  he  was  one  of  the  chief 
captains  of  a  band  of  daring  Xorth.mcn  who  had  entrenched  th.cm- 
selves  at  a  place  called  Aschloo  on  the  River  ^laas.  I-^rom  this 
place  they  sallied  forth  and  laid  waste  everythin.g  far  and  near, 
setting  fire  to  ]\Iaestricht,  Louvaine,  and  Tongern,  from  whose 
ruins  their  course  might  be  tracked  by  the  barren  fields  and  burned 
homesteads  on  the  roads  to  Julich  and  Aix-la-Chapclle.  At  tlic 
latter  place  tlicy  stalled  their  horses  in  the  beautiful  cliai)el  wliere 
the  great  C'!i<arlcmagnc  lay  buried,  and  carried  off  tlie  gilded  ruid 
silvered  railings  that  inclosed  his  toml).  Xcjr  would  a  fragment  of 
gold  or  sil\'cr,  a  single  precious  stone,  or  a  shred  of  co<tly  silken 
or  linen  fabric  ha\e  esca]")ed  liad  nfjt  the  terrified  moulds  ])ro\-ed 
thcmsehcs  \-ery  expert  in  secreting  every  bit  of  ])1aie,  e\-ery  orna- 
mental, i>and-\',  ritlen  bool-:,  rmd  e\'crv  \-C'-Lment  that  tlicy  <i\\ncd. 

When  Goi'm  and  his  associates  had  t.ak'cn  charge  ol  all  they 
cr)ulf|  lay  their  hands  on  at  Aix-la-Gha])e!]e,  the}-  ])il!aged  and 
jjurned   the  m(jna>teries  of    Triin,   Stablo.  and   Malniedv,   killed  or 


EMERGENCE     OF     DENMARK  23 

860-936 

made  captive  some  of  tlie  monks,  and  boldly  bade  defiance  to  the 
army  which  advanced  toward  Aschloo  to  destroy  their  entrench- 
ments. The  emperor,  Charles  the  Fat,  had  brought  an  enormous 
array  of  Prankish,  Bavarian,  Suabian,  and  Saxon  troops  against 
tliem.  But,  in  the  face  of  this  overwhelming  force,  the  Danes 
were  able  to  persuade  the  emperor,  on  their  promising  that  they 
would  be  baptized,  not  to  strike  a  blow  against  them,  but  to  pay 
them  two  thousand  pounds  of  silver  and  gold.  Having  found  how 
easy  it  was  to  blackmail  his  imperial  highness,  the  Vikings  simply 
repeated  their  tactics  from  time  to  time,  remaining  in  safe  quarters 
till  they  had  secured  such  a  large  booty  that  it  required  two  hundred 
ships  to  carry  it  away. 

Viking  expeditions  into  the  realms  of  Charles  the  Fat  now  be- 
came an  extremely  popular  enterprise  with  the  Danes,  for  Charles, 
with  a  fine  instinct  of  hospitality,  presently  eiiacted  that  anyone  who 
killed  a  Northman  should  haye  his  eyes  put  out,  or  even  forfeit  his 
life.  The  Danes  wxre  at  first  hardly  able  to  credit  the  news  of 
tin's  maiwelous  piece  of  legislation,  but  as  events  convinced  them 
of  its  truth,  their  insolence  became  unmeasured ;  twelve  thousand 
pounds  of  silver  now  became  the  price  of  a  very  short  peace. 
Finally,  in  the  autumn  of  885  a.  d.  Gorm  and  another  great  Viking 
leader,  Siegfried,  appeared  before  Paris  vrith  700  vessels  and 
40,000  men.  Passage  up  the  Seine  being  refused  them,  they  laid 
siege  to  the  city  for  fifteen  montlis,  the  unfortunate  Parisians  hav- 
ing been  left  to  their  own  resources  by  their  tardy  and  pusillanimous 
emperor.  At  last,  in  October,  886,  Charles  the  Fat  arrived  with 
a  great  array;  not  to  incur  the  perils  of  battle,  however,  but  to 
follow  once  more  the  unhappy  precedents  of  tlie  previous  years. 
In  March,  887,  the  Vikings  received  seven  hundred  pounds  of 
siU'^r  and  withdrew. 

In  the  meantime,  French  and  Germans  alike  had  grown  weary 
of  their  feeble  and  ineffective  rulers,  and  the  latter  had  chosen  a 
certain  Arnulf  king,  while  the  election  of  the  former  had  settled 
upon  brave  Count  Odo  of  l\aris,  vrlio  had  been  the  leader  and 
mainstay  of  that  city's  resistance  to  the  Northmen  before  Charles 
had  arrived  to  lure  the  assailants  away  by  a  bribe.  Their  new  rulers 
installed,  affairs  began  to  wear  a  different  face.  At  the  battle  of 
Louvaine,  in  89 t,  the  Norihnicn  were  tlioroughly  trounced  by 
/\rniilf,  sixteen  of  tlieir  ro}'.'d  slnndards  were  caj)tnrc(l,  and  llieir 
leader,  vSic'^'fried,  Avas  left  on  t'lc  held,      'i'iic  (jcrnian  chroniclers 


24  S  C  A  X  D  1  X  A  X  I  A 

860-936 

assert  that  the  waters  of  the  River  Dyle  were  red  with  the  blood  of 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  slain  Northmen,  while  but  one  man  was 
missing  from  the  German  ranks  when  Arnulf.  with  beat  of  drum, 
called  together  his  troops  after  the  battle  to  hear  the  priests  chant 
a  Tc  Dcum  in  celebration  of  the  victory.  Gorm  the  Old,  however, 
managed  to  escape  with  a  remnant  of  the  X^'orthmen  and  eventually 
to  make  his  way  back  to  Denmark.  It  may  be  even  conjectured 
that  he  was  not  greatly  distressed  at  the  timely  taking  off  of  rival 
leaders,  since  their  failure  made  his  success  stand  out  the  more 
sharply  to  followers,  who  demanded  results  of  th.eir  leader,  and 
since  the  field  was  cleared  at  home  for  the  further  expansion  of  his 
sway  from  Leire. 


Chapter    IV 

CHRISTIANITY   IN   THE    FAR    NORTH.    ,700-1047 

PERHAPS  Charles  the  Fat's  scrupulous  demand  that  the 
pagan  pillagers  of  his  dominions  should  receive  baptism, 
before  he  would  hand  over  to  them  a  Christian  monarch's 
bribe,  may  be  regarded  as  one  step  in  the  conversion  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian north  to  Christianity.     It  was  not.  however,  the  first  step. 

Nearly  two  hundred  years  before,  Willibrod,  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
had  ventured  on  a  mission  even  as  far  north  as  Jutland.  Shortly 
before  800  Charlemagne,  having  completed  the  conquest  of  the 
Saxons,  founded  the  bishopric  of  Bremen.  But  the  real  hero  of 
Scandinavian  Christianity  is  Anscarius,  the  Apostle  of  the  North. 

Louis  le  Debonnaire,  the  Pious,  the  lugubrious-minded  son 
and  successor  of  Charlemagne,  permitted  his  vast  empire  to  fall 
rapidly  into  decay.  One  consequence  of  this  sorry  process,  as  well 
as  accelerating  cause,  was  the  exposure  of  the  Prankish  realm  to 
the  incursions  of  the  pagan  Northmen,  a  late  example  of  which  we 
had  in  Gorm's  expedition  against  Paris.  Turning  from  his  self- 
inflicted  flagellations  and  penances  to  the  more  real  woes  of  his 
people,  Louis  conceived  the  characteristic  idea  that  the  conquest 
of  the  Invader  should  be  by  the  cross,  rather  than  by  the  sword. 
Ebbo,  Archbishop  of  Rheims.  shared  his  monarch's  views,  and  in 
an  early  year  of  the  latter's  reign,  having  secured  the  consent 
of  the  Pope,  undertook  in  person  to  conduct  a  mission  into  the 
far  north.  Dismayed  by  the  savagery  of  Slesvig',  which  was 
the  remotest  ret^-ion  into  which  he  penetrated,  he  presently  re- 
turned to  his  see,  accompanied,  however,  by  a  royal  proselyte 
named  Harald  Klak,  who,  logetlicr  with  his  family  and  followers, 
when  the  imperial  court  was  reached,  swore  at  the  altar  of  St. 
Alban's  church  in  Mainz  to  abjure  paganism  and  to  forsake  the 
devil  and  all  his  works,  together  with  "  all  the  works  and  words 
of  the  devil,  Thor  and  Odin  and  all  the  ungodly  ones  who  are  their 
helpers."  The  converts  then  received  baptism,  the  emperor  him- 
self and  tlic  empress,  Judith    standing  sponsors. 

Upon  the  return  of   llarald  to  Jutland,   which   presently  oc- 


26  SCANDINAVIA 

700-829 

curred,  Louis  summoned  a  council  of  clergy  and  laymen  to  consider 
the  problem  of  pushing  to  completion  the  work  thus  begun.  For 
a  long  time,  however,  nothing  was  done-,  since  no  one  could  be 
found  audacious  enough  to  venture  amid  such  terrible  heathen, 
while  the  emperor,  on  the  other  hand,  was  determined  that  mis- 
sionary service  should  be  entirely  voluntary,  declaring  that  "  in 
so  great  a  work  the  laborers  must  go  willingly  and  not  because  of 
compulsion."  At  last  the  emperor's  cousin,  Walo,  abbot  of  Corvey. 
announced  that  he  had  discovered  a  young  monk  who  was  both 
willing  and  able  to  endure  all  hardships  in  the  cause  of  Christ, 
who  had  long  been  blessed  by  holy  dreams,  and  whose  heart  was 
set  on  thiC  hope  of  earning  for  himself  a  martyr's  crown  of  glory. 
"  Send  for  this  holy  brother  with  all  speed,  good  cousin,"  said 
Louis,  vvhen  he  heard  this  report.  Accordingly,  the  young  monk 
was  brought  before  the  emperor  who  eagerly  equipped  him  for 
his  perilous  venture  and  showed  liim  much  honor. 

Of  noble  origin,  Anscarius  seems  to  have  been,  nevertheless, 
a  man  of  deep  humility,  for  he  is  said  to  have  scrupled  always  to 
demand  of  the  monks,  subject  to  his  direction,  any  menial  service 
without  sharing  the  burden  with  them.  Of  his  intrepidity  of  char- 
acter there  can  be  no  doubt.  In  827  he  and  a  brother  monk  set  sail 
for  Slesvig,  where,  after  undergoing  many  perils,  they  at  last  landed 
at  riedeby.  and  at  once  began  the  work  of  conversion  by  purchasing 
young  slaves,  probably  captives  of  war.  and  baptizing  them.  Their 
success  Vv'as,  however,  of  short  duration,  for  hardly  had  they 
reached  ITedeby  when  their  royal  patron  was  dispossessed  of  his 
throne  and  forced  to  flee  to  Oldenburg,  whither  Anscarius  and  his 
companion  were  compelled  to  follow  him.  abandoning  their  con- 
verts to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  triumpliant  pagans. 

Meanwhile,  another  opportunitv  presented  itself  for  missionary 
labor  in  a  yet  more  remote  region  than  the  one  just  closed  to  Chris- 
tianity. In  829  I'jjorn,  King  oi  the  Upper  Swedes,  dispatclied  a 
letter  composed  in  runic  characters  to  ilic  emjieror,  im])loring  Iiim 
to  send  s'^me  Christian  mf)nks  into  Sweden.  Anscirius  imme- 
diately uuflcrtook  tlie  mission,  accompanying  a  carawm  of  nier- 
clirmts  on  it-^  w;iy  to  tlie  annual  fair  at  vSigtuna.  Tn  its  ]);!ss,'ige  of 
tlie  i'altic  the  part}-  v^as  ;:tt;ickcd  bv  jiirrttcs,  who  ])lun'!crc(l  them 
(>\  nio^t  of  llicir  (Tfccts,  includiii!.';  forlx-  m:inuscri])t  V'llrjncs  of 
sacred  litci"atiu"c,  whicli  the  cin])('ni''  liad  bc-lowcil  ni)on  .\ns(,-arius 
and  his  associates,  and  fmalK'  ])Ut  thern  cmi  shore,  sick,  hungry,  and 


CHRISTIANITY  27 

829-865 

naked.  In  this  wretched  plight  and  not  knowing-  a  word  of  the 
language,  they  made  their  way  across  lakes  that  seemed  to  them 
vast  seas,  through  forests  infested  with  bears  and  wolves,  and 
over  snow-covered  mountains,  till  they  reached  the  port  of  Birka, 
where  they  were  well  received  by  King  Bjorn  and  his  people  and 
allowed  to  preach  and  to  baptize  all  who  wished  to  become  Chris- 
tians. A  rich  Swedish  noble  even  built  a  church  for  the  converts, 
and  Anscarius  remained  among  the  Svea  for  many  months,  con- 
verting and  baptizing"  a  great  number  of  persons.  As  soon,  hov,'- 
ever,  as  he  went  away,  the  new  religion  fell  into  neglect,  and  when, 
in  853,  he  returned  to  vSweden,  although  he  was  given  permission 
by  the  Ting  allra  Gota,  the  diet  of  the  Goths,  to  expound  Christian- 
ity for  a  time,  the  people  were  so  fearful  of  bringing  down  the 
wrath  of  their  gods  upon  their  own  heads  if  they  listened  to  the 
new  doctrine  that  presently  Anscarius  found  it  well  to  depart ; 
and  for  seventy  years  no  Christian  preacher  appeared  to  challenge 
the  right  of  Odin  to  the  devotion  of  his  worshipers. 

Several  years  previous  to  this  episode,  however,  the  emperor, 
well  pleased  with  the  success  of  Anscarius's  initial  mission,  had 
founded  the  archbishopric  of  Hamburg,  including  the  entire  north, 
and  had  elevated  Anscarius  to  the  metropolitanate.  At  the  same 
time  Gregory  IV.  made  him  Papal  legate  to  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,  At  this  period  Hamburg  was  but  a  poor  fishing  ham- 
let set  in  a  pagan  region,  so  that  the  archiepiscopal  palace  was  only 
a  hut,  the  cathedral  a  shed,  and  the  archbishop  himself  was  forced 
to  eke  out  the  scant  revenues  of  his  see  by  making  nets  and  sails. 
Nor  was  this  all.  For  about  845  a  fleet  of  pagan  Danes  sailed  up 
the  Elbe  and  applied  the  torch  to  Hamburg.  Later,  however, 
Anscarius  ventured  into  the  heart  of  the  Danish  country,  meeting 
with  considerable  success.  But  for  the  most  part,  except  for  the 
journey  to  Sweden,  already  mentioned,  he  spent  his  declining  years 
till  his  death  in  865  at  Bremen,  which  was  now  a  part  of  his  own 
see  and  which  was  fairly  secure  from  Viking  raids.  "  acquiring  a 
stock  of  personal  sanctity  by  those  acts  of  self-mortification  whicli 
in  that  age  were  considered  so  meritorious.  He  was  canonized 
by  Papal  authority,  festivals  were  instigated  in  honor  of  his  mem- 
ory, and  churches  built  to  perpetuate  his  name."  ^  Also  miraculous 
cures  were  ascribed  to  tlie  virtues  of  his  tomb. 

Thus  Christianity  was  carried  into  the  far  north.  The  sac- 
rifice of  the  temple  gave  way  to  tlie  incense  of  the  cathedral.     Tlie 

^  Cricliton  and   W'lieaton,   "  Scandinavia,"   vol.   I.,  p.   123. 


28  S  C  A  X  D  I  N  A  A"  I  A 

865-936 

good  demons  or  elves  of  the  pagan  faith  became  Cliristian  angels, 
the  evil  spirit  Loki  became  Satan,  the  hammer  of  Thor,  the  god  of 
thunder  and  of  war,  became  identified  with  the  cross  of  Christ, 
while  Christ  himself  took  the  place  of  Balder,  whom  Loki  had 
treacherously  slain.  But  this  was  not  all  at  once.  There  were 
numerous  pagan  reactions,  resulting  in  the  conflagration  of  churches 
and  the  slaughter  of  missionaries.  The  uncurbed  Northmen  girded 
at  the  restraints  imposed  by  the  new  faith.  A  Christian  could  not 
be  a  Viking.  He  must  renounce  the  right  of  private  feud,  polyg- 
amy, the  exposure  of  the  newly  born;  and  submit  to  other  re- 
trenchments of  previous  license.  This  fact  it  is.  rather  than  any 
great  enthusiasm  for  pagan  gods,  which  explains  the  opposition 
offered  the  Christian  propaganda  on  the  part  of  the  jarls.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  tenacity  with  which  the  peasantry,  particularly 
of  Norway,  clung  to  the  ancient  beliefs  must  be  regarded  as  genuine. 
Paganism  was  still  a  force  to  be  reckoned  with  in  the  north,  even 
in  the  last  quarter  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  Adam  of  Bremen 
wrote. 

Returning  now  to  Gorm  the  Old,  in  connection  with  the 
general  theme  of  the  conversion  of  Scandinavia,  we  find  that  while 
his  queen,  Thyra.  whose  popularity  with  the  people  is  indicated 
by  the  fond  epithet  Danebod,  was  Christian.  Gorm,  on  the  other 
hand,  continued  to  the  day  of  his  death  a  staunch  pagan,  and.  it 
would  appear  from  Saxo  Grammaticus.  a  relentless  persecutor  of  the 
new  faith,  wherever  he  found  it  outside  the  four  walls  of  the  queen's 
cha])el.  He  thus  won  the  enmity  of  the  chroniclers,  who  call  him 
the  "  church's  worm,"  and,  what  was  more  important,  the  hostility 
(jf  Henry  the  Fowler,  who  seems  to  have  wrested  Slesvig  from  him 
and  to  have  compelled  him  to  admit  Christian  missionaries,  among 
whom  was  Unni,  Archbishop  of  Bremen,  to  his  oilier  dominions 
to  restore  the  churches  which  he  had  allowed  his  pagan  followers 
to  dcstrov.  and,  lastlv,  to  agree  that  Prince  Harald  should  be 
prim  signed,  that  is,  signed  with  the  cross,  a  rite  which  vested  the 
person  undergoing  it  with  the  benefits  of  the  new  faith  without 
requiring  apostasy  to  the  (^Id. 

In  qT^C)  r^orm  died  from  grief,  it  is  said,  for  the  death  of 
his  son  Knud.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Harald  Blaatand.  or 
Blue  Tooth,"   Vvho  was  believed  by  the  people  to  have  been   the 

-IfaraUl  caused  two  grave  niouiuls.  one  of  too  feet  and  llie  otlier  of  50  feet 
in  licic^ht,  to  be   erected   at   Je!lin'4e,   in   tlie  district   nf   l^ihe   in  Jutland,   in   Iionor 


CHRIS  T  I  A  N  1  T  Y  29 

936-975 

murderer  of  his  brotlicr.  Tt  seems  certain  that  Harald  was  of  a 
cruel  and  crafty  nature.  Tlius,  when  his  ncpliew.  Guld  or  Gold- 
Harald,  demanded  part  of  the  king-dom  in  right  of  his  father. 
Knud,  Harald  put  him  off  by  promising  to  help  him  conquer  Nor- 
way. Afterward,  having  enticed  the  Norwegian  king,  Harald 
Graafell,  to  his  court,  on  pretense  of  wishing  to  send  cattle  and 
corn  into  Norway,  where  there  was  a  famine  at  the  time,  he  in- 
duced Guld-Harald  to  slay  him,  but  instead  of  fulfilling  his  prom- 
ises to  his  nephew,  he  sent  for  the  Norw^egian  traitor,  Hakon  Jarl. 
with  whom  he  had  formed  a  secret  compact,  and  helped  him  to 
obtain  Norway  on  condition  that  he  should  rule  as  a  vassal  to  him 
of  the  Blue  Tooth.  Hakon  Jarl  at  first  paid  the  required  taxes  to 
Denmark  and  acknowledged  Harald  as  sovereign  in  Norway,  but 
when  the  Danish  king,  with  characteristic  treachery,  refused  to 
share  with  him,  as  he  had  promised  to  do,  any  of  the  treasure  of 
Guld-Harald,  wdio  had  now,  also,  met  a  violent  death  at  his  uncle's 
instigation,  Hakon  quarreled  w'ith  him,  and  proceeded  to  make 
effective  a  declaration  of  independence. 

Harald  Blaatand  was  the  first  monarch  of  Denmark  to  profess 
Christianity  openly.  The  initial  circumstances  of  his  conversion 
we  have  noted,  but  it  was  only  toward  the  close  of  his  reign  that 
he  allowed  himself,  together  wdth  his  queen  and  his  son  Svend. 
to  be  publicly  baptized  by  a  German  bishop,  Poppo  by  name,  who 
is  reported  by  legend  to  have  wrought  some  astounding"  miracles 
and  thereby  to  have  effected  the  conversion  of  a  host  of  Danes. 
Harald  ver}^  early  removed  his  court  from  Leire,  whose  powerful 
pagan  associations  he  discreetly  decided  not  to  combat,  to  Roeskilde, 
where  he  erected  a  cathedral  to  the  Trinity.  Soon  after  his  bap- 
tism bishoprics  were  established  at  Aarhus,  Ribe,  and  Slesvig. 
Under  color  of  his  imperial  authority  Otto  T.  granted  charters  to 
the  prelates  of  these  sees,  conferring-  immunity  from  all  payments 
and  services  to  the  Danish  crown.  Harald  now  determined  to 
seize  the  episcopal  lands,  with  the  result  that  in  975  the  emperor 
marched  with  a  large  army  into  Holstein,  and  through  the  treachery 
of  Hakon  Jarl,  who  had  been  called  upon  to  aid  the  king,  burned 

of  liis  fatlier  Gorm  and  his  mother  Tliyra.  This  is  recorded  in  runic  letters 
upon  a  large  stone  that  once  stood  on  the  lower  mound,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  enclosed  the  remains  of  the  queen.  Thc^e  high  motmds,  which  still  exist, 
have  been  found  to  contain  rooms,  in  which  were  stored  away  small  silver 
and  gilt  cups  and  other  things  that  might  have  been  used  by  the  king  and 
queen  in  their  everyday  life. 


30  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

975-985 

the  Dannevirke  "  and  overran  Slesvig  and  Jutland.  Ilarald  was 
forced  to  admit  himself  the  cmi)cror's  tributary  and  to  agree  to 
leave  the  three  bishops  unmolested. 

Svend,  Harald's  single  surviving  son,  though  he  shared  baptism 
v.ith  his  parents,  was  at  heart  thoroughly  devoted  to  the  old  wor- 
shiip.  Like  many  another  prince  in  those  times  he  had  been  sent 
to  a  warrior  of  renov.-n  to  recei\-e  his  military  training.  It  was 
from  his  tutor,  I'alnatoke,  that  Svend  imbibed  his  paganism  and 
his  detestation  of  Christianity.  Tiie  parent,  however,  was  not  to 
be  outdone  by  the  teacher,  but  pkmned.  if  we  are  to  believe  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  a  re\-enge.  which  Ijccause  of  its  calculated  cruelty 
has  given  rise  to  one  of  the  most  famous  t;des  of  folklore. 

According  to  Saxo,  one  day,  when  Palnatoke  was  boasting 
before  the  king  of  his  skill  in  archery.  Ilarald  told  him  that,  for 
all  his  boasting,  he  was  confident  there  was  one  shot  which  he 
would  not  venture  to  attempt.  The  latter  replied  that  there  was 
no  shot  which  he  would  not  venture;  whereupon,  the  king  ordered 
him  to  slioot  an  apple  off  the  head  of  his  eldest  son,  Aage.  i'al- 
natoke  obeyed.  The  arrow  entered  the  apple,  and  the  boy  escaped 
unhurt,  but  liis  father,  enraged  at  this  and  other  proofs  of  Harald's 
cruel  trcaciicry,  became  his  sworn  foe,  vv'itlidrawing  soon  after 
to  the  little  Island  of  W'ollin.  in  Pomerrmia.  He  gathered  round 
him  a  band  oi  pagan  Vikings  and  founded  th.e  brotherhood  of 
Jcjm.-^bnrg,  wh.ich  for  many  years  proved  a  frightful  scc;urge  to 
all  the  Christian  lands  adjoining  the  Paltic  Sea,  rmd  reminds  one  for 
all  the  V\'orld  of  the  West  Indian  pinaticad  brotherhoods  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  Harald,  after  a  lono-  reign,  during  which  he 
more  tlian  cjuce  carried  ships  ajid  men  to  X(-)rmandy  to  aid  the 
young  Dr.ke  ]\ichard  against  tlic  JM-ench  king,  died  in  985  from  the 
eftects  (jf  :i  wouiid  \\'hich  he  received  in  battle  with  Ids  ]iagan  son 
Svend  arid  I'a.lnatoke.  It  is  reported  that  Svend  himself  slew  his 
father  on  the  battle'ield,  wiiile  l\alnatoke  stood  by.  The  old  king's 
;lcath  did  not,  liowexcr,  bring  these  men  the  good  they  had  hoped 
from  it.  In^ie.'id.  't  slirred  up  strife  i)etwcen  them,  and  to  the  end 
of  hi.^  days  Svciid,  called  Tveskaeg  or  "  Cleft  beard,''  had  no  worse 
]i>cs  than   raln.-'.liiKc  aiid  the  men  of  jrinisborg. 

■"■'riu'  DaiMK-.irkr-.  .•.  -trnni^ly  fortifio]  \vr:!!,  nf  c;irtl!  ;in(I  stnne,  was  built 
at  tlu-  (irilcr  <  ,i  [y-.ryi]  TIiM-a,  i;i  an  interval  of  ono  of  (ionii's  Vikin^j  cxpedi- 
I1011-.  it  cx!r;,,lr(]  fnai)  tlu-  Sclkrr  >.'orr  on  tli<'  Slic  to  Ilollin'-^'-tad  0:1  llic 
'I  ;■( cm-,   was  from  forty-live  to  seventy-live  feet  high,  and  took  tliree  years  ia 


CHRISTIANITY  '31 

985-1035 

The  reign  of  Svend  Tveskaeg,  "  the  Cleft  Bearded,"  marks  the 
beginning  of  Denmark's  great  period.  Svend  himself  defeated  tlie 
Swedes,  N^orwegians,  and  Wends,  and  as  the  Sv/e}a\  who  invaded 
England  he  first  eompelled  Ethelred  the  Unready  to  pay  the 
Danegeld,  then  drove  him  from  the  land,  making  himself  master 
of  the  greater  part  of  England.  His  death  occurred  suddenly  at 
Gainsborough,  in  loizj..  His  immediate  successor  was  his  younger 
son,  Harald,  who  had  reigned  but  four  3'ears,  however,  when  his 
death  brought  another  son,  Knud,  to  the  Danish  throne. 

Already  in  the  year  1014  Knud,  "  armed  with  a  tliousand  great 
ships,"  as  .-Vdam  of  Bremen  has  it,  had  crossed  tiie  sea  to  Britain, 
and  by  the  year  1018  had  effected  the  conquest  of  the  English 
monarchy,  and,  as  Canute  the  Great,  had  founded  the  short-lived 
line  of  Danish  rulers  of  that  country. 

The  story  of  this  achievement  belongs  to  English  history;  its 
results,  hoAvever,  were  of  immense  importance  to  Denmpa-k.  At 
the  time  of  Knud's  accession,  of  his  800,000  Danish  subjects, 
400,000  were  still  pagans.  A  Christian  himself,  Kiiud  caused  the 
Christian  religion  to  be  made  the  faith  of  the  nation  and  the  rem- 
nants of  tlie  worsliip  of  Odin  to  be  extirpated  from  cill  the  provinces. 
In  the  settlement  of  the  affairs  of  tlie  church  English  bishops  v/ere 
set  over  the  Danish  clergy.  In  every  way  Knud  shovvcd  his  par- 
tiality for  his  Anglo-Saxon  dominion,  and  liis  eager  acceptance  of 
its  arts  and  civilization.  Workmen  of  every  trade  were  brougiit 
from  England  and  made  the  tutors  of  the  Danes.  In  short,  Knud 
made  Denmark  a  second  England.  Nor  vv^as  the  iniiuence  of 
Anglo-Saxon  civilization  restricted  to  Denmark.  For  Knucl's  suc- 
cessful wars  in  Sweden  and  Norway  disseminated  it  throughout 
the  entire  north. 

When  King  Knud  died,  in  1035,  the  miaster  of  six  so-calle^l 
Idngdoms — namely  England,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norv;ay,  Scot- 
land, and  Cumberland — he  was  not  more  than  thirty-six.  This 
was  an  early  age  at  which  to  have  made  so  m;uiy  conr[ucsts,  for 
Denmark  was  the  onJy  one  of  his  states  that  h.e  had  not  gained 
for  himself  by  force  of  arms;  and  when  we  rc-ul  of  :dl  th.'it  he 
did  to  improve  the  conrlition  of  his  sui)jects,  and  of  the  (juiet  anul 
order  which  reigned  in  hhigland  imder  him.  ^ve  caiUiot  wonder 
<at  the  pr.'iisc  given  to  him  by  the  Vvrilers  of  his  time.  Nor  can  we 
help  sharing  in  the  surprise  wiiich  tliey  e\])ie.ss  tliat  a  ])rince,  who, 
like  Knud,  had  been  born  a  pn.ga.n  and  iiad  grown  to  manhood 


32  S  C  A  X  D  I  X  A  A'  I  A 

1035-1042 

without  receiving  any  instruction,  should  in  so  short  a  time  have 
become  so  learned  that.  Avhen  he  went  to  Rome  to  receive  the 
Pope's  benediction,  his  knowledge  and  wisdom  were  the  admiration 
of  all  who  saw  him  and  spoke  with  him. 

Unfortunately,  however,  none  of  Knud's  sons  possessed  their 
father's  genius,  and  in  a  few  years  the  great  empire  that  he  had 
built  up  had  utterly  crumbled. 

Xorway.  upon  whose  throne  Knud's  son,  Svend.  an  arrogant 
youth  of  fifteen,  had  been  placed  in  1030.  passecl  from  Danish 
control  without  a  struggle  at  the  moment  of  Knud's  death.  Jn 
England  Harald,  known  in  English  history  as  Harold  Harefoot, 
succeeded  his  fatlier.  but  died  in  1039.  His  half-brother.  Hartha- 
knud.  tlie  son  of  Queen  Emma,  succeeded  him.  amid  great  acclaim 
from  both  Danes  and  Saxons.  The  high  hopes  thus  raised  were, 
however,  soon  disappointed.  One  of  the  young  king's  first  cares  was 
to  reward  the  seamen  of  the  slu'ps  which  had  conducted  him  from 
Holland  to  England  at  the  time  of  his  brother  Tfarald's  death,  and 
he  ga\"e  great  displeasure  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  b}'  demanding  a 
sum  of  thirty-two  thousand  pounds  of  silver  for  the  fleet  and  army. 
Danish  soldiers  were  sent  through  the  country  to  collect  this  tax. 
and  the  insolence  with  wb.ich  thc<e  men  performed  their  duty  led  to 
constant  disturbances.  The  liberality  which  the  king  and  his  mother 
showed  to  the  clergy,  by  bestowing  numerous  valuable  estates  on 
churches  and  monasteries  to  found  masses  io\-  the  soul  of  Ixing 
Knud.  increased  the  p0])ular  detestation  in  which  they  were  held, 
although  it  secured  them,  in  a  measure,  from  ecclesiastical  reproof 
and  won  over  to  their  cause  some  of  the  highest  prelates  in  the  king- 
dom, who  did  not  disdain  to  take  part  in  some  questionable  courses 
at  the  comm.and  of  their  sr)\-creign.  Thus,  when  Harthak'nud,  im- 
mcdiatcl}'  after  his  coronation,  determined,  upon  his  mother's  ad- 
vice, to  gi\e  public  ])roof  of  his  hatred  for  his  half-brother.  King 
Harold  1  larefoot,  he  intrusted  to  Aelfric,  Archbish<'»]i  of  ^'ork,  the 
undignified  offcc  nf  going  wiih  ihc  couimon  executioner  to  disinter 
the  body  of  [|,-irald  and  ^oe  the  head  cut  off  .and  cast  into  the 
'fhames — an  ad  which  gave  great  otTcnse  to  the  peo])le  of  London. 

Harthrdamd  m:ide  one  effort  to  regain  the  good-will  nf  his 
Anglo-Saxon  subjects  bv  a  show  r.f  favor  to  the  friends  of  the 
former  prinrc-.  ||c  c\cn  ga\'e  it  out  tlint  he  intended  to  mete 
jn-ticc  onl  t^  the  mn.rdcrcrs  of  Acthaling- Ael  fred,  k'tlielrcd  the 
I'nready"-   -'^n.      Thc-c  c-.\ccljcnt   intcntinn^  ])ro\c'd  aborti\-e.      The 


CHRIS  1'  1  A  X  1 1'  Y  m 

1042-1047 

king's  threatening  hand  was  stayed  by  a  magnificent  bribe  in  the 
shape  of  an  armed  vessel  from  the  chief  murderer  himself,  the 
rich  and  powerful  Earl  Godwine  of  English  history.  Upon  Hartha- 
knud's  sudden  death  in  1042  Edward  the  Confessor  restored  the 
Anglo-Saxon  line  to  the  English  throne. 

By  this  event  Norway  w'as  thrust  into  a  position  of  temporary 
superiority  to  Denmark,  for  by  a  compact  entered  into  between 
the  late  king  and  Magnus  ■*  the  Good  of  Norway  the  territories 
of  either  prince  were  to  fall  to  the  survivor.  Thus,  in  case  Mag- 
nus had  died  first,  the  crown  of  Norway  was  to  have  gone  to  the 
king  of  England  and  Denmark,  but  now  that  he  survived  Hartha- 
knud,  he  had  the  right  to  come  forward  and  take  the  Danish  throne. 
As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  news  of  Harthaknud's  death  reached 
Norway,  Magnus  collected  a  fleet  and  sailed  over  to  Denmark  to 
advance  his  claims.  The  people,  who  knew  him  to  be  a  just,  al- 
though a  severe,  ruler,  and  w'ho  had  no  prince  among  them  upon 
whom  they  cared  to  bestow  the  Danish  crown,  w'ere  content  to 
accept  him  in  spite  of  the  strange  way  in  which  he  had  been  foisted 
upon  them;  and  so,  for  five  years,  from  1042  to  1047,  Denmark 
was  joined  with  Norway  under  the  latter's  king. 

Magnus  proved  a  good  friend  to  young  Svend,  the  nephew 
of  Knud,  whom  he  made  jarl  of  Denmark.  Svend,  however,  re- 
paid his  friendship  with  ingratitude  and  treachery,  stirring  up 
sedition,  and  finally  even  making  war  upon  his  patron.  In  a 
battle  which  ensued  Svend  was  beaten,  and  seeing  his  best  men 
scattered  and  routed,  he  took  to  flight,  whereu])()n  the  king  went 
in  pursuit  of  him,  but  as  ]\Iagnus  was  riding  oft"  the  field  a  hare 
crossed  his  path  and  startled  his  horse;  he  was  thrown  to  the 
ground,  and  so  much  injured  by  the  fall  that  he  died  in  a  few 
hours.  Before  his  death,  however,  he  caused  Svend  to  l)e  brought 
before  him,  and  rousing  himself,  he  bade  all  present  to  bear  witness 
that  he  restored  all  the  rights  to  the  crown  of  Denmark  which  he 
had  received  from  the  late  King  Harthaknud  and  that  he  chose 
his  uncle,  Harald.  to  rule  over  Norw^ay  after  him.  ]\Iagnus  being- 
much  beloved  by  his  subjects,  both  the  Danes  and  Norwegians  were 
willing  to  comply  with  his  wishes,  and  llnis.  while  1  larald  had  to 
content  himself  with  Norway.  Svend,  the  nephew  of  Knud,  became 
king  of  Denmark  in  T047  and  inaugurated  the  Estridsen  line. 

*  A  footnote  in  I)ryce'>  "  Holy  Roman  Hnipirc,'"  p.  78,  cigluh  (.-dition. 


Chapter   V 


HARAI.D    HAARFAGER    AND    SCANDINAVIAN 

EXPANSION.     863-1030 

WKDEN  nnd  Xorwny  were  very  little  known  to  the  rest 
of  the  VvTirld  before  tlie  h.ej^^innino-  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. This  may  liave  been  due  to  their  .(greater  distance  from 
civilized  lands  or  to  the  rig'or  of  tlie  climate,  which  closed  their 
harbors  frir  mar.y  months  in  tlie  year  and  made  those  nigged  parts 
of  Scandinavia  unattractive  to  strangers,  or  to  both  these  things. 
Tlie  D;mes  were,  in  fact,  for  many  ages  the  only  one  of  the  north- 
ern nati:  ms  known  to  Christian  Europe,  and  although  it  is  very 
])robabie  that  Svs'er^es,  and  after  a  time  Xorv/egians  also,  took  part 
in  the  great  Danish  invasions  of  England  and  of  the  Frankish 
empire,  they  were  all  included  by  tlie  people  of  those  countries  un- 
der tiiC  corivmon  name  of  Northmen,  or  Danes.  And,  as  all  the 
three  riorthern  nations  continued  to  speak-  tiie  "  P^ihisk  tnnga" 
n)anish  to--!gue),  to  follow  the  same  forms  of  religion,  and  to 
evince  tlie  same  spirit  of  ferocity,  courage,  ar.d  daring  long  after 
tliey  h.r.d  separated  and  formed  rlistinct  kingdoms,  it  is  little  wonder 
that  foreigners  su])po-ed  tiicm  to  be  only  one  peo'ple.  This  idea 
v/as,  moreover,  not  es'^cntird.lv  incorrect,  for  in  spite  of  their  divi- 
sions into  D'Ties,  Swedes,  and  }\orwegians,  the  Northmen  were 
op.ly  one  pe(^])le,  tracing  their  descent  from  the  same  common 
Cotln'c  f<  irefritl^ers.  who  ]ym\  come  from  the  far  l^ast,  and  s])read 
thenT^elves  (-ver  the  i.dands  and  the  most  fruitful  coastlands  of 
th,e  k;r-h.ic. 

T'k^  Ciotlis  i^.robakdv  stayed  in  those  more  genial  ])arts  of 
.^(•andina\-ia  as  li'Ug  .is  their  leaders  found  ?\x\ro,  enough  for  them- 
sc]\-('S  and  thcii'  fnn:)\ver<.  but  whcri  their  nuniibers  inc-reased,  and 
"the  -mall  l-:inL;'-;  "  beg.a'.i  fighting  runong  them:-cl\-cs  and  interfer- 
iii'^-  \",  i;'i  ("icii  other,  iiyj  vounger  chiefs  witii  llie  re-^tle^:>ness  char- 
aclvn  \\c  01  tli'di-  i'are  '-ct  forih  in  search  of  new  homes.  !^(.me  sucii 
'■•lu-v-;,  ii  i^  ])ciic\rd,  1('  to  the  se!l!einfut  of  iIk;  sonllieiai  j.iarts  (jf 
Swed.-n  hy  tl:c  C-'iiJi-,  frc.^i  i'^'-r;,  ^talniid,  or  the  !  )anisli  Islands. 
In  the  old   :-,,.(■.;!;,■   Ic'LM  nd..    it   is  related   that   Odin   founded 


EXPANSION  35 

70  B,  C.-10  A.  D. 

the  empire  of  the  Svea,  and  built  a  great  temple  at  a  spot  called 
Sigtuna,  near  Lake  Maelar,  in  the  present  provin.ce  of  Upland, 
which  was  known  by  the  Northmen  under  the  name  of  the  "  lesser 
Svithjod "  to  distinguish  it  from  that  "  greater  Svithjod/'  or 
Scythia,  from  which  they  believed  that  he  had  led  his  followers. 
According  to  the  "  Hcimskruigia,"  when  Odin  arrived  from  the 
Hellespont  with  his  twelve  pontiffs  he  found  that  a  great  part  of 
the  land  was  occupied  by  a  people  who,  like  himself,  had  come  from 
Svithjod,  but  in  such  long  past  ages  that  according  to  tlicir  own 
account  no  one  could  fix  the  time.  These  people,  who  called  them- 
selves *'  Gota,"  or  "  Gauta,"  Goths,  and  boasted  that  they  had 
driven  all  the  dwarfs,  giants,  and  "  Fenni  "  (the  Finns  and  Lapps) 
of  the  country  back  into  the  mountains  and  dreary  wastes,  were  so 
strong  that  Odin  was  forced  to  make  a  compact  with  their  king, 
Gylfe,  before  he  could  settle  in  the  land.  But  after  tliese  two  great 
chiefs  had  proved  each  other's  strength  in  a  trial  of  magic,  they 
lived  together  on  friendly  terms,  and  Sweclen  was  thenceforth  di- 
vided into  the  two  free  nations  of  the  "  Svea."  Swedes,  and  the 
"  Gota,"  Goths.  The  Svea  were  governed  after  Odin's  demise  by 
his  pontiffs,  who  had  charge  of  his  temple  at  Sigtuna ;  and  his  tribe 
by  degrees  grew  so  much  more  powerful  tlian  the  Gota  that  they 
were  allov/ed  to  take  the  lead  in  all  public  matters,  and  their  rulers 
were  looked  up  to  as  chief  kings  by  all  tlie  '''  smaa-kongar  "  of  the 
Goths,  as  well  as  the  Sv;edes.  Some  writers  have  offered  the 
hypothesis  that  long  after  the  first  Gothic  invaders  brought  his 
worship  into  Sweden,  a  second  band  of  the  same  tribe  came  under 
a  leader  called  by  his  name,  who  set  up  a  newer  form  of  faith  which 
gained  such  hold  over  the  minds  of  the  people  that  in  time  they 
came  to  worship  tl:e  two  Odins  under  one  common  faith.  Other 
scholars  believe  that  the}'  have  found  evidences  of  a  blond  race 
existing  aboriginally  in  southern  Norway.  If  this  supposed  dis- 
covery is  to  be  relied  upon,  the  legend  of  Odin  and  Gylfe  may  sym- 
bolize the  union  of  tliis  primitive  people  with  the  Gothic  invaders. 
At  any  rate  the  legend  records  tlie  fact  that  primitive  Sweden  falls 
in.to  two  geographical  divisions :  Gotakmd  and  Svealand,  the  latter, 
the  more  northerly,  being  at  first  predominant. 

Like  the  Danes,  the  Swedes  traced  the  descent  of  their  early 
kings  back  to  Odin,  through  his  successor  in  Sweden,  the  jjontiff 
Njord,  whose  son  l<"rcy-Yngve  \vas  the  founder  of  tlic  royal  race 
of  the  Ynglingar.     We  are  told  that  this  prince,  who  built  a  great 


'S6  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

A.  D.-623  A.  D. 

temple  to  Odin  on  the  ruins  of  the  more  ancient  one  of  Sigtuna, 
and  called  it  Up-Sala  (or  the  High  Halls),  was  so  much  beloved 
by  his  subjects  that  when  he  died  his  family  did  not  venture  to 
proclaim  his  death  lest  tumult  should  arise  among  the  Svea,  but 
laid  his  body  within  a  carefully  built  stone  mound,  to  which  they 
continued  for  three  years  to  carry  all  the  gifts  and  annual  offerings 
of  the  ])eoplc.  They  did  not  burn  the  body,  according  to  their 
ancient  custom,  because  it  had  been  forett^dd  that  as  long  as  Frey- 
^'ngve  stayed  in  Lesser  Svithjod  all  would  go  well  with  the  land ; 
but  when  they  found  at  the  end  of  three  years  that  the  seasons  con- 
tinued to  be  good,  they  ventured  to  make  known  his  death,  and 
the  people,  in  gratitude  for  all  he  had  done  for  them  on  earth, 
placed  him  among  their  gods  and  prayed  to  him  for  peace  and 
plenty. 

Frey-Yngve  was  counted  as  the  last  of  the  gods.  His  de- 
scendants continued  to  rule  over  the  Svea  for  several  generations 
till  enmity  sprang  up  among  the  different  members  of  the  royal 
house.  Tlien  the  Ynglingar  lost  all  power  over  the  small  kings  of 
Sweden  through  the  evil  deeds  of  one  of  their  race.  Ingjald  111- 
raada,  the  "  Bad  Ruler."  who  drew  upon  himself  the  anger  of  the 
people  by  a  deed  of  horror  and  treachery.  He  sent  messengers  to 
all  those  of  his  kinsmen  who  were  "  smaa-kongar,"  and  begged  tliat 
they  would  sliow  their  respect  for  the  late  king  by  attending  the  grave 
feast.  Six  of  the  small  kings  obeyed  the  summons,  and  were,  ac- 
cording to  ancient  usage,  invited  to  take  their  places  on  the  high- 
scat  at  the  end  of  tlie  hall,  which  in  the  dwellings  of  the  X(M-thmcn 
was  alwa}'s  reserved  for  the  master  of  the  house  and  his  most 
honored  guests.  Ingjald.  TtS  the  giver  of  the  feast,  sat  on  a  low 
sto(jl  at  their  feet,  since  it  was  not  considered  right  for  tlie  heir 
to  take  his  fatlicr"s  seat  till  tlie  grave  feast  was  o\"er  and  tlie  last 
toast  had  been  drunk  to  tlie  mcmorv  of  tlic  dead.  When  his  turn 
came  to  di-ink'  ivn\n  the  hnr^n.  or  ''good-health"  horn,  he  arose 
to  his  feet,  and  said  lie  claimed  tlic  riglit  of  making  a  sacred  vow 
bet'ore  lie  drained  the  cv.]).  Tlicreuiion.  tlie  feast  being  o\-cr,  he 
caused  tlie  m'x  kings  to  be  seized  and  burned  .alive,  on  the  plea 
that  the  go(]<  had  con'^traincd  him  to  swear  that  he  would  sacrifice 
them  all  in  mcmr)ry  of  his  father.  The  "  Upsala  l'>urning  "  did  not 
go  unavenged.  Tn  a  second  conflagration  the  king  and  his  wicked 
drnightcr,  Aax,-!,  pcnMicd  in  the  llames  which  they  had  thenT^elvcs 
kindled  to  e-cape  from  llie  wratli  ^f  llieir  encinie>. 


EXPANSION  37 

630 -983 

After  these  events  the  Svea  would  have  no  more  of  the 
Ynglingar  for  their  kings,  and  Ingjald's  children  were  driven  out 
of  the  country.  His  eldest  son  Olaf,  fearing  the  anger  of  the 
people,  fled  with  a  few  companions  beyond  the  mountains  to  the 
dense  forests  which  then  covered  the  border-land  between  tlie  pres- 
ent Sweden  and  Norway,  and  began  to  clear  the  ground  by  burning 
the  trees  in  order  to  make  it  fit  for  human  habitation ;  from  this,  he 
became  known  as  "  Traetelje,"  or  the  Tree-hewer,  and  the  land 
which  he  cleared  was  thenceforth  called  Vermland,  in  memory  of  his 
having  warmed  it  by  setting  fire  to  the  great  forests.  Like  his 
father,  Ingjald,  this  prince  also  met  his  death  by  fire;  for  when 
some  years  afterward  his  people  suffered  from  famine,  they  laifl 
the  blame  on  Olaf  and  forced  him  to  submit  to  be  burned  at  the 
great  sacrifice  to  Odin,  in  order  that  the  god,  in  return  for  a  royal 
victim,  might  avert  the  evil  that  had  come  upon  them.  Olaf's  de- 
scendants passed  over  from  Vermland  into  Norway  and  became 
the  founders  of  that  kingdom. 

Such  are  the  accounts  given  of  the  rise  of  the  Swedish  and 
Norwegian  monarchies  in  the  legend  known  as  the  Ynglinga  Saga, 
which  was  written  down  by  scribes  in  Iceland  from  the  old  songs 
brought  over  to  that  country  by  the  early  settlers  and  handed  down 
by  them  to  their  children,  and  through  them  to  later  generations. 
This  and  other  sagas,  which  related  to  the  rise  of  the  royal  races 
of  Sweden  and  Norway,  were  no  doubt  based  on  real  events,  which 
in  the  course  of  time  became  intermingled  with  fables.  We  owe 
our  knowledge  of  them  to  King  Harald  Haarfager,  v;ho  boasted 
of  being  an  Ynglingar  through  his  descent  from  Olaf  'I'raetelje, 
the  Tree-hewer,  and  who,  during  the  course  of  his  long  reign  over 
Norway  between  the  years  863  and  933,  had  the  sagas  relating  to 
his  supposed  ancestors  collected  and  recited  before  his  court. 

The  Swedes  and  the  Norwegians  retained  their  old  faith  much 
longer  than  the  Danes,  and  tlie  few  glimpses  which  we  catch  froiii 
the  sagas  of  their  character  and  conduct  in  tliose  early  times  evince 
small  regard  for  human  life.  In  Denmark  human  sacrifice  was 
only  very  rareh'  practiced,  but  in  .Sweden,  where  they  p.re  said  to 
have  been  enjoined  as  a  religious  duty  by  Frey-^higve,  the  first 
of  the  Ynglingar  race,  they  appear  to  have  been  ver}'  frequent.  Wc 
even  read  of  one  Swedish  king  called  Ane  who  tried  to  gain  from 
Odin  length  of  life  from  year  to  year  by  offering  up  one  of  his 
sons  at  each  annual  sacrifice  to  tlic  god.     According  lo  lliis  saga, 


38  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  A'  I  A 

863-933 

when  nine  of  liis  chiklren  had  thus  been  slain,  the  Svea,  in  spite  of 
their  (hxad  of  Ochn  and  of  the  king  who  was  his  high  priest,  rose 
in  anger  against  Ane,  and  saved  the  tenth  and  last  of  his  sons  from 
sharing  the  fate  of  his  bnnhers. 

Throughout  all  the  north  every  king,  as  we  have  seen,  was 
the  pontiff  or  high  priest  t>f  his  people,  and  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant and  sacred  of  his  duties  was  to  offer  annual  sacrifices  within 
the  temples  of  his  kingdom,  an  office  which  gave  some  of  the  north- 
ern kings  greater  ])ower  than  others.  Thus,  in  Denmark,  as  we 
have  seen,  where  the  chief  temple  to  Odin  was  at  Deire.  or  Ledra, 
•in  Sjaclland,  Gnrm.  as  the  ijontiff-king  of  that  district,  was  looked 
up  to  by  the  neighboring  small  kings  and  ciribled  to  secure  a 
strong  influence  (jver  them  which  helped  him  greatly  in  his  efforts 
to  make  himself  king  of  all  Denmark.  It  was  tlie  same  in  Sweden, 
where  the  Ynglingar,  who  had  cli;irge  of  Odin's  cliief  temple  at 
Upsala,  were,  from  the  first,  the  leading  kings  of  the  country. 

Ifilcewise,  the  kings  oi  Lund,  in  whose  territories  there  was 
another  imj)ortant  shrine,  early  made  themselves  the  leading  chief- 
tains in  Skaania.  Indeed,  one  of  these  rulers,  a  certain  Ivar  \"\d- 
fadme,  who  is  calculated  to  have  lived  in  the  scvenih  century,  plays 
a  great  part  in  the  sagas  of  the  Icelanders,  f()r  he  is  said  to  have 
conquered  Sweden  and  Denmark,  a  large  portion  of  the  lands  of 
the  Saxons,  rmd  one-fifth  of  all  England.  But,  on  the  (illicr  hand. 
v^axo  Grammaticu.s,  the  Danish  historian,  does  ncl  even  mention 
his  name  among  the  rulers  of  Denmark,  nor  do  Anglo-Saxon  rec- 
ords make  any  reference  to  him.  The  Danes,  ll(l^vcver,  Sjjcak  of 
him  as  the  grandfather  of  their  King  Tlarald  llildcland,  ci  whose 
defeat  in  his  old  age  by  the  young  Swedish  king.  Sigurd  Ivin.if.  at 
the  battle  of  Brawdla,  we  have  already  spoken. 

In  this,  as  in  Citlicr  periods  of  northern  h.istory.  the  Icings  and 
heroes  of  Denm.'irk  ;uul  Swcflcn  are  so  intermingled  that  it  is  often 
im|)or.<il)!e  to  decide  to  which  nation  we  must  refer  any  one  of  them. 
Tlie  Danish  .'uid  Icelandic  sagas  general]}'  agree  in  making  all  great 
norllvjrn  chiefs  D.anes  (jr  Xorwegians.  while  the  .Swedes  as  often 
claim  tliem  for  their  own  country.  This  is  especially  tiie  case  in  regard 
to  the  fa\-orite  denii-god  Stoerkodder,  .and  to  Kegner  of  the  Leather 
Lc;:'ging<,  wko-c  unnKTous  sons  <ir  tn'andsons  rankc'(l  among  the 
most  d.'iring  of  the  \'il-:ings  of  the  ninth  century.  Another  reason, 
f<!r  our  ignorance  of  .Sweden's  history  in  those  earl\-  times  is  fur- 
ifi.died,  no  (k/Libt,  b}'  the  fact  tliat  the  Swedes,  in.sie.-'.d  of  jitting  out 


EXPANSION  39 

863-933 

great  fleets  year  after  year,  like  the  other  Scandinavian  nations,  to 
attack  the  southern  lands  of  Europe,  turned  their  arms  against  the 
Finns,  Lapps,  and  Wends,  wlio  lived  north  and  east  of  them  and 
whom  they  could  reach  by  crossing  the  mountains  and  frozen  gulfs 
which  separated  them  from  those  remote  tribes.  Tluis  engrossed, 
they  failed  to  establish  contact  with  the  more  civilized  nations  of 
Europe,  wlio  hardly  knew  of  their  existence  till  the  }\[iddle  .-Vgcs. 
In  short,  the  history  of  Sweden  is  so  confused  and  so  shrouded  in 
fable  before  the  time  of  Erik  Sejrsael,  the  Victorious,  who  died  in 
993,  that  it  would  be  quite  useless  to  try  to  give  a  continuous  ac- 
count even  of  what  is  imagined  to  have  happened  at  an}'  previous 
period. 

The  people  of  Sweden  early  gave  the  name  of  "  Yanen,"  or 
V^ends,  to  all  nations  living  to  the  east  of  them,  and  they  also  called 
the  Einnish  tribes  "  Jotunar,"  which  was  th.e  same  word  that  they 
applied  to  the  giants  of  their  mythology.  The  Einns,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  continued  from  ancient  times  till  the  present  day  to  call 
the  Russians  "  Wiinalaiset "  (Wends)  and  the  Swedes  "  Ruot- 
salaiset  "  (Russians),  from  Roden  or  Rosen,  the  ancient  name  for 
the  part  of  Sweden  nearest  soutliern  Einland.  This  confusion  of 
names  renders  it  very  difficult  to  follow  the  accounts  of  tlie  wars 
and  conquests  which  the  Swedes  are  said  to  have  made  in  early 
times  among"  the  Einns,  W^ends,  and  Russians.  We  know,  however, 
that  the  greater  number  of  the  Varingjar  who  passed  through 
Garderike,  the  present  Russia,  on  their  way  to  !\Iiklagaard  (Con- 
stantinople) were  Swedes,  while  it  was  from  the  name  Ruotsalaiset 
or  Russians,  which  the  older  inhabitants  gave  them,  that  the  coun- 
try became  known  in  aftertimes  as  Russia. 

According  to  Russian  clu'oniclers,  it  was  in  tlie  year  859  that 
a  band  of  tlie  Varingjar  or  Varings,  who  had  first  come  over  the  sea 
under  a  leader  called  Rurik,  first  appeared  in  Garderike,  where  they 
sulxlued  all  tlie  Slavs  and  Einns  whom  th.ey  encountered  on  their 
march.  After  a  time,  however,  these  older  inhal)itants  of  Garderike 
took  courage  to  attack  tlie  small  number  of  strangers  who  were 
making  themselves  masters  of  their  country,  and  drove  them  out. 
Rurik  and  his  men,  thereupon,  made  haste  to  f(jllo\v  their  com- 
])ani(jns,  wIid  had  ])ushcd  straight  on  towrird  Greece,  au'd  for  tlic 
next  two  years  Gnrdcril^c  was  left  clear  of  the  XortlimcMi.  Rut 
at  the  end  oi  lliat  time  the  Slavs  and  iM'nns,  ha\-ing  fourid  that  tlicv 
were  worse  tre;itcd  by  their  own  chiefs  th;m  they  had  been  l)y  tlie 


40  S  C  A  N  D  1  \  A  \'  1  A 

863-933 

Strangers,  sent  messengers  into  Greece  to  the  Varingjar.  "  Our 
land  is  large,"'  they  said,  "  and  blessed  with  everything  good  for 
man  ;  all  we  need  is  order;  come,  then,  be  our  princes  and  rule  over 
us.''  On  receiving  this  message,  the  Varingjar  took  counsel  to- 
gether, and  it  was  decided  that  those  among  their  number  who 
wished  to  return  to  Garderike  should  cast  lots  to  see  whom  Odin 
would  choose  to  be  leaders  over  the  rest.  The  lot  fell  upon  Rurik, 
who  accordingly  with  his  two  brothers,  Sineus  and  Truvor,  their 
families,  and  a  numerous  band  of  followers  left  Miklagaard  and 
returned  into  the  land  of  the  Slavs.  Rurik  chose  the  district  now 
known  to  us  as  Novgorod,  while  the  old  land  of  the  Slavs  received 
the  name  Russia. 

In  the  same  age  in  which  the  Danes  were  hovering  about  the 
coasts  of  Iviigland,  penetrating-  into  the  interior  of  Gaul  and  Ger- 
many, and  the  Swedes  were  making  concjuests  in  eastern  Europe, 
the  Xoruegians,  with  an  inborn  Imc  of  achenture,  were  striking 
boldly  ou.t  into  seas  where  no  European — and  probably  no  human 
bcing^had  c\er  yet  di])ped  liis  oar. 

.\fter  tlicy  had  once  begun  their  daring  course  of  ocean  voy- 
ages, tliey  ne\er  rested  till  they  had  moored  their  barks  on  every 
island  in  the  northern  seas,  and  pushed  their  way  beyond  the  north- 
\vestcrn  limits  of  Eurcjpe  to  the  Xew  World.  Before  the  close  of 
the  ninth  century,  while  Alfred  the  Great  was  still  ruling  in  Eng- 
land, tlie  j)agan  Norwegians  of  whose  countr}-  he  had  learned  some- 
thing througli  the  narrative  of  tlie  travelers,  Ohtlierc  and  W'ulfstan, 
liad  made  settlements  on  c\-cry  side  of  his  kingdom,  in  Scotland, 
Irelan.d.  the  T^le  of  Man.  tlie  Orkneys,  Hebrides,  and  Shetland, 
and  had  discovered  and  ])eo])lcd  Iceland  and  the  l'\aroe  Islands, 
while  ten  vears  after  Alfred's  death  the  northeast  of  the  ])resent 
I' ranee  had  been  seized  u])on  b\'  their  countryman  Rolf,  whose  de- 
scendanls  in  tlie  next  centurv  brought  back  to  h'ngland  the  ])ower 
of  tl:e  Xdnhnien  from  which  Alfred  ho])ed  he  had  forever  freed 
his  kingdom. 

The  de-ire  ^>\  tlie  Norwegians  to  make  new  settlements  for 
tliem.-el\  e.s  in  foreign  lands  during  the  latter  half  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury wa>  much  sliniulaied  by  tlie  state  of  pul)lic  altairs  in  their  own 
eountr)-.  In  .\'or\\a\-,  as  in  the  other  Seandinaxian  lands,  the 
Count r}'  had  from  the  earliest  times  been  di\ided  into  a  great  num- 
ber ol  di.-^n"iet<,  ruleil  oxer  b\-  small  kings,  and  ha\'ing  each  a 
sepai'ale  Thing  (.)r  public  assenibl}'.  and  a  certain  number  of  barks 


EXPANSION  41 

863-933 

and  men-at-arms,  with  whicli  to  fight  or  to  defend  its  own  frontiers. 
Halfdan  Svarte,  a  descendant  of  Olaf  Traetclje,  the  "  Tree-hewer,"' 
who  hved  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  had  conquered  several 
of  these  petty  chieftaincies  and  united  them  with  his  own  in  Vest- 
fold.  He  also  made  some  laws  for  his  growing  realm  which  have 
come  down  to  us  and  by  which  their  author  plainly  lioped  to  super- 
sede the  blood  feud  with  the  more  orderly  Wergild.^  Chiefly,  how- 
ever, he  is  remarkable  as  the  father  of  Harald  Ilaarfager,  "  the 
beautiful  haired,"  who  succeeded  Halfdan  upon  the  latter's  death  by 
drowning  in  863.  Harald's  role  in  Norwegian  history  is  that  of 
Gorm  the  Old  in  Danish  history,  but  on  the  whole  Harald's  figure  is 
much  more  definite  than  that  of  his  contemporary.  This  does  not 
mean,  however,  that  legend  has  not  attached  itself  to  Harald's 
fame ;  for  we  are  assured  that  prodigies  foretold  his  greatness,  that 
the  giant  Dofre  instructed  him  in  the  art  of  warfare,  and  th.-it  at 
ten,  his  age  when  his  father  was  drowned,  he  already  p(;ssessed  a 
prodigious  number  of  accomplishments  and  titles  to  distinction. 
Somewhat  later  he  resolved  to  make  himself  master  of  Nor\va\'. 
in  proof  whereof  he  took  a  solemn  oath  neither  to  cut  nor  comb 
his  luxuriant  yellow  locks  till  he  had  subdued  all  the  :;niaa-konp;ar 
of  the  land.  iVccording  to  one  tale,  Harald  was  moved  to  his  vovv' 
by  his  love  for  the  beautiful  Gyda,  who  responded  to  his  advances 
with  a  haughty  refusal  to  consider  marriage  with  any  but  a  real 
monarch.  A  more  plausible  explanation  is  that  of  ambition,  or  of 
desire  for  revenge  upon  the  neighboring  chiefs  for  their  treacherous 
attempt  to  parcel  out  among-  themselves  Harald's  dominions  in_  his 
tender  years,  iV  great  number  of  victorious  battles,  the  dimensions 
of  which  have  not  shrunken  with  the  lapse  of  time,  made  Harald 
supreme  throughout  Vermland  and  Tellemark,  and  drove  the  now 
thoroughly  consternated  smaa-kongar  into  confecler^ition.  Hie  fate 
of  Norway  was  decided  in  872  by  a  great  sea  battle  fought  in 
Hafurstfjord,  near  present  day  Stavanger,  where  Harald  abso 
lutely  shattered  the  fleet  oi  his  allied  f(K\s.  1  le  followcl  u])  his  \-ic- 
tory  by  im])Osing  a  heavy  tax  u[)on  e\ery  district  in  Norway,  ;nul 
setting  his  ov/n  friends  over  the  different  small  kingiloms  witli  llic 
title  (_)f  jarls.  The  impartial  sevcrit)'  with  wliich  the  king  rnid  liis 
oflicers  caused  good  order  to  be  enforced  upon  the  rich  .'ind  jx-or 

^  A  fine  or  rnmpensalion,  ranpjinf!^  in  amoimf  aix'oriliiio;  In  liie  st;ilif)ns  of  liic' 
parties  and  tlu'  injuri-  inllictcd,  llic  payuu'iil  <if  wliidi  fi-ccd  llic  oflendcr  Inm!  .i:;-. 
fiirlher  obligalion  or  i)ayniciit. 


42  S  C  A  N  D  1  N  A  \  I  A 

863-933 

alike  enraged  the  old  chiefs,  and  many  of  them  declared  that  "  rather 
than  submit,  like  low-born  churls,  to  rule  and  order,  they  would 
leave  their  country.''  Tlicn  it  was  that  some  of  the  noblest-born 
Norwegians,  taking  their  families  and  fi^llowers  with  them,  em- 
barked on  their  ships,  and  after  making  solcnrn  offerings  t(^  th.e 
gods  of  their  fathers  and  calling  down  divine  vengeance  on  the 
head  of  the  impious  inn^n-ator  llarrdd.  left  their  nati\-e  land  for 
good — as  indeed  it  was  in  all  senses  of  the  term — and  set  sail  in 
search  of  new  homes. 

One  of  the  most  noted  of  the  Xorwcgian.  families  who  were 
driven  from  their  native  lanrl  at  th.is  period  v/as  that  of  Rognvald, 
jarl  of  ?\Iaere,  who.  lilce  1  larald  himself,  claimed]  to  be  descended 
from  th.e  famous  Sigurd  King,  C(;rif{ucror  <;f  Denmark.  Wdien 
King  Ilarald  found  tiiat  ih.e  jarl  liad  m^t  carried  out  against  his 
ovm  son  Rolf  the  rirdcrs  which  he  had  recei\-ef|  t()  ])UMish  ]:)iracy 
by  death,  he  sent  th.e  ];rinccs  Gudrod  an..]  TL-dfckm  in  invade  Rogn- 
vald's  lands  and  drive  In's  family  from  their  h.ome.  ddie  Jarl 
Rdgn\"aM  was  slain  in  battle,  and  his  eldest  son  F-jirir  dri^■en  into 
e.xile,  while  the  younger  son,  who  had  been  the  cause  of  the  feud 
between  the  king  an-l  h.i'-^  family,  was  still  absent  fi'om  Xorway  on 
a  \''iking  cruise.  Tins  you.th,  wh.o  on  account  of  his  great  sLature, 
which  prexented  any  hc^r^e  from  carr}-ing  hirii,  was  r:nov\-n  as 
Gaungo  Rtjlf.  or  "  the  vv-illcing  Rollo,"  was  one  ci  the  most  famous 
\'ikings  of  his  age  and  r.-ited  for  the  success  with  wln'ch  he  ff^l- 
lov/ed  the  old  northern  irrxtice  of  straiid-hu'^,  or  sei/.ing  by  force 
from  off  the  sea  coastlands  u]:)on  anything  which  lie  or  his  crews 
might  want,  and  then  going  off  to  sea  again  with  the  booty,  ddiis 
institution  Harald  was  determined  to  abolish.  Vv"here\'er  practicable. 
.\ccordingly,  v;hen  Rolf,  v/ho  did  not  know  of  the  death  of  his 
f.ather  and  tlte  di'^grace  of  h.is  family,  landed  on  ihe  Island  \^igen. 
rnifl  began  his  rild  habit  of  using  strand-hug.  he  was  seized  by 
orders  of  the  king  .•■.ufi  brou.ght  before  the  Idling  to  be  condemned 
as  r'ji  cmtlaw.  Rr)li"s  mother  cUkI  friends  olTercrl  lai'p;e  sums  of 
nume-y  to  a])i)ea^e  h.i;  linger,  Init  to  no  ])ur])ose,  .and  the  \'oung  man. 
!-veing  tliat  Ifar.al'l  would  not  ];ardon  him  or  ;illow  him  to  remain 
iii  .\orwa}',  ^et  f<;rth  in  search  of  a  home  el-ewhere.  'i"hc  Icelandic 
sag.'is  tell  u>  that,  ha\!iig  crossed  the  sea.  he  went  in  V-'/O,  to  Walland 
(Gaul),  where  he  cari'ied  on  war  agaiii'-i  the  kin;j",  and  .at  la-t 
g.ained  for  him-elf  ,-i  i;rrat  iai-ldom  which  \\v  lilicd  wi;''  .\'(  athnicn 
.'ind  which  on  t!i.at  .account   w;is  called   .\ormandiet  or  .Vorm.andv. 


EXPANSION 


'1 00-1172 


43 


"  From  this  stock  came  the  jarls  of  Normandy,  and,  in  course  of 
time,  also  the  kings  of  England,  for  Rolf's  son  William  was  the 
father  of  Richard,  and  this  Richard  had  a  son  of  his  own  name 
whose  son  Rolf,  or  Robert,  was  the  father  of  William  the  Con- 
queror of  England." 

According  to  northern  traditions  the  Danes  had  as  early  as 
the  fifth  century  made  settlements  in  Scotland,  but  the  Norwe- 
gians did  not  attack  the  country  in  any  large  numbers  till  the  reign 
of  Harald.  In  Ireland  the  northern  Vikings  were  known  under  the 
name  of  "  Lochlanach,"  and  the  lands  from  which  they  came  under 


SCANDINAVIAN     EXPLORATION 

BEfORUTHE  ll'-CSHTUHY 


that  of  "  Lochlin."  The  Irisli  annals  record  the  arrival  in  852  of 
an  "  Olauf,  King  of  Lochlin,"  to  whom  all  the  Northern  Gat,  or 
Strangers,  submitted.  He  reigned  in  Dublin,  while  two  other 
northern  chiefs,  Ivar  and  Sigtrygg,  made  small  kingdoms  for 
themselves  at  Waterford  and  Limerick.  'Die  descendants  of  the 
Vikings  continued,  with  many  vicissitudes,  to  rule  over  those  ])arts 
of  Ireland  till  1172,  when  the  island  was  invaded  by  the  luiglish. 
Even  long  after  that  time  tlie  former  ])resence  of  the  Northmen, 
or  "  Eastmen,"  as  they  were  then  called,  could  be  traced  in  the 
laws  and  usages  and  the  appearance  of  the  ])eoi)le  oT  those  districts. 
More  intimately  connected  with   the  history  of  the  Scandinavian 


U  S  (•  A  X  D  I  N  A  \"  I  A 

861-874 

jieciples  is  tlie  story  of  liow  llarald  ITaai'fa.q'cr's  stern  rule,  by  driv- 
ing- so  many  of  liis  subjects  forlli  in  search  of  new  homes,  led  to 
the  discovery  of  Icehmd.  Greenland,  and  X'inland. 

Iceland  was  first  visited  by  a  Swede,  called  Gardar,  by  a  Xor- 
v.-egian  X'adod.  wlio  named  the  country  Snaeland  (  Snowland).  and 
by  another  X'orwegian  known  as  Floki  Rafn,  who  gave  the  island 
its  present  name.  These  three  men  all  landed  in  Iceland  between 
the  years  86 1  and  868.  and  even  passed  many  months  at  a  time 
there,  but  it  is  nr)t  certain  who  among  them  had  the  distinction  to 
precede  the  others.  On  their  return  to  Scandinavia  they  gave  a 
dreadful  account  of  the  land,  which  according  to  their  report  had 
been  cursed  by  the  gods,  and  given  over  to  the  power  of  horrible 
giants  who  lived  within  caves  and  mountains  where  they  kept  up  a 
never-ending  strife  in  the  midst  of  liquid  ilre.  boiling  water,  and 
melting'  rocks.  After  this  report  some  years  passed  before  anyone 
cared  to  ventiuT  ui)on  anotlter  visit  to  a  country  of  which  such  an 
alarming  account  ccmld  be  given ;  but  when  men  began  to  feel 
the  vreight  ui  llarald's  harsh  rule  in  X'orway.  they  remembered 
that  Floki's  com])anions  had  not  thought  so  badly  of  the  new  land 
to  the  west  as  Floki  had  pretended  to.  Some  of  the  old  V^ikings 
indeed  declared  that  any  land  must  be  better  than  the  kingdom  over 
which  a  liarald  Haarfager  ruled,  while  many  of  the  poorer  men 
in  X'orv.'ay  said  that  they  did  not  care  for  the  mountain  giants,  if 
only  they  might  reach  a  s])()t  where  neither  king  ]ior  jarl  could  lay 
hands  upon  them.  So  all  who  were  able  set  s;iil  in  search  of  this 
free  land  in  the  far  north  (ji  which  they  knew  so  little. 

One  c>i  the  most  im])ortant  of  the  expeditions  fitted  out  was 
that  headed  by  Ingolf.  the  son  of  a  Norwegian  jarl.  who  had  slain 
his  f()e  in  a  deadly  combat  known  as  JioIiii<^aiii^,~  and  who.  finding 
tliat  King  llarald  meant  to  punish  him  according  to  the  law.  em- 
b.'irlx'd  with  rdl  his  family  and  hotisehold  sl,'i\-e.~,  reaching  Iceland 
late  in  the  autumn  of  the  vear  874.  The  moment  land  lujve  into 
\icw.  Ingolf  cast  intf)  ihe  sea  the  consecrated  ])t)^ts  of  his  Norwe- 
gian  h()U-e.    \  owing  th.at  he   would   make  his   Immc    \\liere\er   tlie 

-  lIoliiiL'ai  c(  iiicrnii  ;i  n^lit  nn  rm  island  niolm),  and  lliis  niddc  of  fi^^Iitin.i^ 
v/a-  one  i,t'  ilic  ii'.o^t  fatal  practict-d  by  the  Nortluncii.  W'licn  two  nicn  wanted 
to  M-tile  a  fi'ia.rrc!  by  f'mhtin.i,'.  it  v.a'^  the  custom  in  the  Scandinavian  lands  for 
them  to  fjo  to  -'.iiv  ^nialj  and  de-crted  island  where  llicy  nii.i^ht  be  free  from 
intcrrnptinn,  and  they  ofu-n  fr)nLdit  with  sneli  fury  that  both  died  from  tlie 
woniuK  which  tliey  liad  j^iven  each  other.  Thus  a  licilinKan^-  came  to  be  looked 
i;p"n   a-   i!i"   !;!Ti-t-t    of  all    -i!i;;lf   combats. 


EXPANSION  45 

874-880 

waves  and  winds  should  cast  tlicm  ashore.  Thev  drifted  awav. 
however,  and  for  three  years  Ingolf,  attended  liy  his  slaves,  con- 
tinued to  seek  for  them,  until  at  length  the  sacred  door  ])osts  were 
found  in  a  bay  on  the  southwest  of  the  island,  where  he  fixed  his 
abode,  and  began  to  build  houses  on  the  spot  which,  as  Reykiavik, 
is  to-day  the  chief  town  of  Iceland.  Ingolf  may  thus  rank  as  the 
first  settler  on  the  island,  but  he  was  soon  followed  by  so  many 
other  Norwegians  of  noble  birth  that  in  the  course  of  a  few  years 
all  the  habitable  parts  of  Iceland  had  been  peopled  by  them  and 
their  followers,  bringing  with  them  to  this  new  colony  the  usages 
and  laws,  the  religion  and  language  of  the  old  country. 

Among  the  many  sagas  of  Norway,  there  is  one  called 
the  Eyrbyggja  Saga,  to  which  it  is  worth  while  to  refer  for 
the  light  it  throws  on  certain  contemporary  northern  customs. 
Jarl  Thorolf-Mostrar-Skegg  Avent  to  Iceland  in  880,  an  outlaw. 
because  he  had  refused  to  give  up  to  the  king's  officer  his 
piratical  kinsman,  Bjorn.  Acting  in  accordance  with  the  usages 
practiced  in  such  cases  by  all  great  Norwegian  settlers,  he  carried 
with  him  when  he  sailed  from  Norway  with  his  family  and  slaves 
the  image  of  the  god  Thor  and  the  earth  on  which  it  had  stood. 
together  with  the  greater  part  of  the  woodwork  of  the  shrine  in 
which  he  had  worshiped  in  his  home.  ^lany  friends  followed  him, 
and  when  the  vessels  drev:  near  to  the  coasts  of  Iceland,  Thorolf, 
as  pontiff  or  chief  priest  of  all  who  had  come  with  hini,  threw  into 
the  sea  the  columns  of  the  temjde  on  Avliich  the  image  of  Thor 
Vv'as  carved,  and  following  these  sacred  objects  they  entered  a  bay 
which  from  its  breadth  he  called  ''  Breida-Fjord."  Here  Thorolf 
landed  and  took  formal  possession  of  the  country  by  walking  round 
the  lands  he  meant  to  occupy,  and  setting  fire  to  the  grass  along 
the  boundary  line  by  means  of  a  burning  brand  which  he  bore  with 
him.  He  then  built  a  large  house  with  a  shrine  near  it  to  receive 
the  sacred  columns,  together  with  Thor's  image  and  the  conse- 
crated earth  that  he  had  brought  from  Norway.  In  the  middle  of 
the  temple  was  a  sanctuary  or  altar,  on  which  was  placed  a  sih'cr 
ring  two  pounds  in  weight,  whicli  was  worn  by  th.e  pontiff  at  all 
public  meetings  of  the  people  of  his  district  and  was  used  to  furnish 
the  necessary  sanction  to  an  oath,  so  that  the  person  who  perjured 
himself  after  swearing  upon  Thor's  ring  was  looked  upon  by  the 
Northmen  as  the  vilest  of  men. 

When  Thorolf  had  provided  his  shrine  with  these  sacred  ob- 


46  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  ^'  I  A 

880-940 

I'ccts  and  with  the  basins,  knives,  and  other  instruments  used  for 
makinc^  the  sacrifices,  he  prepared  niches  in  the  walls  of  the  build- 
ing- for  the  images  of  rniy  other  northern  gods  that  the  people  might 
\visli  to  set  up  for  worship.  Xext  he  caused  the  space  around  the 
temple  to  be  enclosed  by  rows  of  stones  to  prepare  it  for  the  annual 
Her  jar-Thing-,  or  assize  or  assembly  of  the  chiefs,  wdiich  according 
to  the  old  ncjrth.ern  usage  was  held  in  the  open  air  within  sight  and 
sound  of  the  sacrifices.  The  ground  on  which  the  members  of  the 
Thing  held  these  meetings  was  considered  as  sacred  as  that  on 
which  the  temple  stood,  and  w'as  not  to  be  defiled  by  the  shedding 
of  blood  in  anger  nor  trodden  by  the  feet  of  m.en  carrying  arms. 
In  the  center  of  the  enclosure  one  spot  was  raised  above  the  sur- 
rounding area.  Here  the  jurors,  witnesses,  and  compurgators  were 
to  stand  forth  on  the  occasion  of  a  trial  and  to  take  a  solemn 
oath  in  the  ])reser.ce  of  all  that  they  w-ould  decide  and  speak  accord- 
ing to  truth,  adding  "  so  help  me  Frey,  Njord,  Thor,  and  the 
Almighty  As  [0<lin].  "  ■> 

When  Thor(jlf  had  thus  prepared  all  things  to  the  end  that  re- 
ligion and  the  laws  might  be  observed  in  the  new  country,  he 
divided  the  colony  into  three  districts  which  owned  him  for  head 
])ontiff,  but  were  ruled  over  by  separate  chiefs,  each  of  whom  within 
his  own  limits  performed  much  the  same  ceremonial  that  Thorolf 
had  performed  for  the  whole  island.  The  mode  of  government 
thus  set  up  v.as  kjUg  followed  and  may  even  at  the  present  day  be 
traced  in  some  matters  appertaining  to  the  administration  of  the 
laws  of  Iceland. 

In  the  space  of  sixty  years  after  Thorolf's  coming  to  Iceland 
all  habitable  ])arts  of  the  island  were  occupied  by  settlers  from  Nor- 
way. After  a  time  tlie  pontiff  chiefs  found  inconvenient  the  lack 
of  a  common  high  court  of  law,  to  which  they  could  appeal  in  case 
of  dis]nites.  ar.d  determined  to  remedy  the  c\-il.  They  therefore 
agreed  to  defer  to  tlie  wisdom  of  a  certain  Ulfijot,  a  wise  and  hon- 

•"■  Tile  Ac-ir  C-iii.Lnilnr  A~.  God)  were  fal)k'(l  to  Ikivc  lived  in  "  As^aard  " 
nitavi-n),  wlitiici;  ilu-y  crossed  tlic  hrid.i^'e  "]?ifrost"  (l\aiiil)o\v)  to  reacli 
"  .\Iid:'r;:ird  "  (the  |-'.artli).  I'fvoiid  the  sea  wliich  encircUd  Mid'^aard  lay 
jMt;!iihri:u  (.r  tin-  fiiaiit'^  l)\ve]lin,u;-place.  The  Ae>ir  were  hapjiy  and  at  i)eaee 
till  til!  >■  made  ac'i'iaiina.iicc  \'.itli  the  .L,M'ants  and  ,t;iaiite<ses  of  JtUuuheiiii,  when 
tli'ir  '-'iMiii  ;<iir  ];;i-M-d  away.  Odin  cast  his  spear  out  in  the  midst  of  the 
W'-rld  and  war  lu'Kan.  Tlie  Ae.-^ir  i"on,L;ht  with  the  Vanen  (Wends)  and  lindin.L,^ 
them  t'lii  U'.iil;  to  he  sr.lidned,  they  made  ])eacc  with  them  and  took  Njord 
and  l:i  ■-on  I'ny  to  he  tlnir  e(|nals  in  As.i^aard,  the  ftjrnier  to  rule  over  the 
^ea  and  the  wind-  and  the  latter  over  peace  and  plenty. 


EXPANSION  47 

925-983 

est  chieftain,  whom  they  begged,  as  he  valued  the  peace  and  hap- 
piness of  Iceland,  to  return  to  Norway  and  learn  what  were  the 
laws  and  usages  of  their  forefathers.  Ulfljot  accepted  the  charge, 
and  although  he  was  then  sixty  years  of  age.  left  his  home  and 
family  and  undertook  the  voyage  to  Norway,  v.here  he  remained 
from  the  year  925  till  928,  spending  those  three  years  in  the  study 
of  the  laws  and  in  committing  to  writing  all  that  Thorleif  the  Wise, 
a  man  skilled  in  ancient  law,  could  tell  him.  He  then  came  back 
to  Iceland  and  began  to  prepare  a  code  of  laws  which  were  read 
to  the  people  at  an  All-Thing  or  general  parliament  and  approved. 
For  three  hundred  years  after  its  settlement  Iceland  was  a  repub- 
lic, but  it  was  not  a  peaceful  country,  for  both  before  and  after  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  the  chiefs  waged  incessant  war  upon 
each  other,  and  few  men  living  on  the  island  were  left  to  enjoy 
their  own  in  quiet.  Iceland  had  been  settled  by  men  wlio  could  not 
endure  the  sway  of  a  single  unified  sovereign  or  respect  the  rank 
of  king  or  jarl,  but  within  a  few  generations  the  descendants  of 
these  very  men  were  harassed  by  a  multitude  of  masters  and  saw 
their  equals  striving  for  more  power  than  any  king  or  jarl  had 
ever  dreamed  of  exercising  in  the  old  country.  The  desire  to 
escape  the  control  of  law  long  continued  to  drive  restless  men  over 
seas,  especially  as  in  the  contest  between  paganism  and  Christianity 
which  was  joined  in  Norway  in  the  later  tenth  century,  the 
monarchs  espoused  the  relatively  unpopular  cause  of  tl:e  new  re- 
ligion. Erik  Raudi,  or  the  Red,  son  of  Thorwald  Jarl.  having  been 
made  an  outlaw  both  in  Norway  and  in  Iceland  on  account  of  a 
murder,  set  sail  in  search  of  some  region  where  he  might  dwell 
in  impunity.  In  the  course  of  his  cruising  in  the  northern  seas  he 
cam.e  to  a  land  which  he  named  "  Greenland."  in  the  hope,  perhaps, 
of  making  others  believe  that  it  was  a  fruitful  country.  This  dis- 
covery was  made  in  983.  A  fevr  years  later  Erik  induced  a  number 
of  Icelanders,  who.  like  him.  were  tired  of  living  in  a  land  where 
laws  were  enforced,  to  join  him  in  lPiC  new  country.  The  intention 
of  those,  however,  who  hoped  to  make  Greenland  n  strcMighold  of 
paganism  was  defeated.  For  Erik's  son  Leif.  wln^  in  early  youth 
had  served  luider  Kiiig  01;if  Trygvasson.  liad  become  a  Christian. 
On  the  death  of  the  king.  Eeif  determined  to  convert  liis  father's 
new  colony,  and  in  the  vear  1000  came  back  to  (^rcenl.-md.  Ijringing 
with  him  several  monks,  who  at  once  began  t(i  Ijaptizc  tlie  people, 
till  soon  there  was  r.ot  a  pagan  left  among  tliem. 


48  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1000-1736 

This  colony  of  Greenland  was  after  a  time  wholly  destroyed, 
and  so  tlioronc^hly  lost  sipfht  of  that  even  at  the  present  day  it  is  a 
matter  of  donbt  whether  the  settlements  made  by  Erik  and  his  son 
Leif  were  on  the  east  or  the  west  coasts  of  Greenland.  It  is,  how- 
e\er,  believed  tliat  both  the  eastern  and  western  shores  were  early 
settled  and  that  they  continned  to  be  occnpied  by  a  flourishing  col- 
ony till  near  tlie  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  the  plague 
known  as  the  "  Black  Death,"  which  had  been  raging  for  many 
years  in  every  part  of  northern  Europe,  reached  Greenland  and 
carried  off  nearly  all  the  people.  The  few  persons  who  escaped 
its  ravages  were  soon  [ifterward  cut  off  by  hostile  natives,  who, 
taking  advantage  of  the  meager  number  of  the  colonists,  fell  upon 
them  and  killed  them.  Possibly  the  settlements  of  the  Oestre 
I3ygd,  on  the  east  coast,  survived  those  of  tlie  Vestre  Bygd  a  cen- 
turv  or  more,  but  by  1460  they  too  had  ceased  to  exist.  For  ages 
afterward  no  one  made  any  attempt  to  explore  the  coasts  on  which 
so  many  Northmen  had  met  with  so  sad  an  end,  but  in  the  earlv 
part  of  the  eighteen  century  Hans  Iigede.  a  Norwegian  clergyman, 
obtained  ships  and  money  from  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  to 
proceed  to  Greenland  in  order  that  he  might  try  to  convert  the 
native  Greenlanders,  wlio  had  been  neglected  by  the  mother  country 
since  the  days  of  the  Black  Death.  Hans  Egede  and  his  wife  Ger- 
trude laljored  with  zeal  to  convert  and  civilize  the  neglected  natives 
from  the  time  of  their  landing  in  Greenland  in  1721  till  the  death 
of  Hans  in  1736,  when  their  son  Paul  Egede  took  up  the  work  that 
his  parents  had  begun.  Since  that  time  the  Danes  have  made  set- 
tlemenf^  in  tlie  country,  and  have  opened  factories  and  mission- 
houses  i-)V  the  benefit  of  these  remote  colonies. 

]!ut  to  return  to  Lcif.  Having  seen  a  church  established  in 
Greenland,  he  Ijcgan  to  long  for  other  excitement,  which  soon  of- 
fered itx'ir  in  tliC  prrxpcct  of  discovering  a  new  kuid.  It  happened 
that  in  the  year  1003  an  Icelander.  P.j;irne.  wln'Ic  sailing  in  search 
of  his  lather,  wlio  lind  gDnc  (>n  a  trading  v</vagc  to  Greenland,  \vas 
carried  far  away  Im  the  west  anrl  soiuh.  till  he  reached  a  flat  coun- 
try ^o  thiclJy  (■M\'ercd  v^'iih  wood  that  he  felt  certain  from  the 
dcK-i-iptlon-  lu"  had  hra.rd  (if  (Greenland,  it  conld  not  be  the  land 
of  which  he  wa<--  in  search.  He  therefore  changed  his  direction  and, 
as  he  calcnlated,  prr-ently  came  safely  to  Greenland.  On  hearing 
the  acrr.iint  fh;i'  i'.i'inie  gax'e  of  the  strange  land  he  had  vidted. 
I.<il  hec.-n.c  inijiatient  \n  \  in't  it  him-elf.     So.  bnving  lji;irne'->  ^hi]). 


E  X  1»  A  N  S  1  O  N  49 

1000-1030 

lie  manned  it  with  tliirty-five  j^'ood  scainen,  and  asked  his  fatlicr 
Erik  to  take  the  command.  Erik  the  Red  assented,  but  being  an 
old  man  by  that  time  and  feeble,  he  went  to  the  place  of  embarka- 
tion on  horseback,  when,  his  horse  stumbling,  he  regarded  it  as  a 
bad  omen  and  declined  to  go  on  board,  saying,  ''  I  do  not  believe 
it  is  given  me  to  discover  more  lands,  and  here  I  will  abide." 

Leif,  therefore,  set  sail  without  his  father.  Following  the 
course  which  Bjiirne  had  taken,  he  reached  after  a  time  a  long 
stretch  of  coast,  at  many  points  of  which  he  and  his  men  landed, 
and  gathered  delicious  berries  and  other  fruits  which  were  un- 
known to  some  of  them,  but  which  seemed  to  Leif  very  like  the 
fruits  he  had  eaten  in  southern  Europe  when  serving  under 
Olaf  Trygvasson.  One  day  when  Leif  and  some  of  his  men 
had  landed  on  the  unknown  coast,  he  lost  sight  of  his  father's 
servant,  Tyrker,  who  was  a  German.  Leif  sought  him  for  a 
long  time  in  the  woods,  and  at  length  found  him  gathering  bright 
purple  and  red  bunches  of  fruit,  which  tb.e  man  seemed  overjoyed 
to  have  found.  In  his  excitement  he  had  forgotten  tiie  northern 
tongue  which  he  had  long  used,  and  began  to  speak  in  his  own 
South-German  language,  and  it  was  some  time  before  he  could  make 
his  master  and  his  companions  understand  that  he  had  found 
grapes,  of  which  in  his  native  country  men  made  wine. 

The  Northmen  spent  the  winter  in  this  region,  which  Leif 
named  "  Vinland  den  Gode,"  or  "  Wine-land  the  Good,''  and  which 
some  authorities  believe  to  have  been  the  coast  of  ALassachusetts, 
or  perhaps  Nantucket  Island.  Afterward,  first  resuming  for  a 
time  their  cruise  along  the  coasts  farther  south,  they  returned  to 
Greenland  and  told  their  friends  of  all  the  strange  lands  they  had 
seen.  This  happened  about  the  year  1003  or  1004.  During  the 
next  few  years  Leif  and  his  brothers,  Thorwald  and  Thorstein, 
made  several  voyages  to  the  same  sliores  with  a  view  to  settling 
there,  but  the  settlements  were  too  small  to  resist  the  attacks  of  the 
natives,  Skraelingar,  or  Bad  Ones,  as  the  Northmen  called  them, 
and  so  were  one  bv  one  cut  off  and  the  leaders  killed.  Both  Thor- 
wald and  Thorstein  so  perished,  though  Leif  got  back  safely  to 
Greenland. 

The  latest  notice  of  Vinland  is  to  be  found  in  the  Eyrbyggja 
Saga,  wherein  it  is  related  that  in  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of  Olaf 
the  Saint  of  Norway,  who  died  in  1030,  an  Icelander  named  (indleif, 
in  making  a  trading  voyage  to  Iceland,  was  driven  far  t<j  the  south 


50  SCANDINAVIA 

1000-1030 

and  west  till  he  reached  a  land  upon  whose  shores  he  saw  dark- 
skinned  men.  They  came  in  threat  numbers  to  attack  the  stranj^ers, 
and  after  seizin,c,'-  the  latter,  carried  tliem  bound  into  the  country. 
Here  the  ]);irtv  was  met  by  an  old,  light-haired  chief,  of  tall  and 
cnmmandin'^-  stature,  who  spoke  to  Gudleif  in  Icelandic,  and  told 
him  that  he  and  his  companions  might  return  to  their  ships,  but  that 
if  they  valued  their  lives  they  would  make  no  delay,  as  the  natives 
were  cruel  to  strangers.  He  refused  to  tell  his  name,  but  he  asked 
tidings  of  Sncrre  Gode.  one  of  the  chief  personages  of  Iceland, 
and  begged  that  Gudleif  would  carry  back  with  him  a  gold  ring 
for  Snorre's  sister  Thurida  and  a  sword  for  her  son.  When  Gud- 
leif returned  with  these  gifts,  and  told  the  people  of  Iceland  what 
had  befallen  him,  it  was  believed  by  them  that  the  fair-skinned  man 
in  Vinland  was  Bjorn,  a  famous  skald,  who  had  loved  Thurida  in 
her  youth  and  who  had  never  been  heard  of  since  he  had  sailed 
from  Icel.'ind  in  the  year  998. 

After  Gudleif  returned  in  1030  from  his  voyage  to  the  far 
west,  no  settlement  of  tlie  Xorthmen  is  known  to  have  been  again 
attempted,  although  a  Saxon  priest  is  said  to  have  sailed  from  Ice- 
land in  1059  to  convert  the  heathen  of  Vinlaufl.  h^^r  nearly  four 
centiu^ies  and  a  half  the  western  world  w\as  again  wraj^iped  in  dark- 
ness, until  in  1492  the  great  Genoese  seaman,  Christo[)her  Colum- 
bus, reopened  tlie  ocean  road  to  its  vast  territories,  and  for  the 
first  time  made  them  knov.n  to  the  nations  of  Europe. 


Chapter    VI 


KINGS    AND    HEROES    OF   THE   YNGLINGAR   LINE 
IN    NORWAY.     863-1047 

WE  may  now  return  to  Norway  and  Harald  Haarfager. 
The  principle  upon  which  Harcild  set  about  to  reor- 
ganize the  dominion  that  he  had  reduced  to  his  sway 
was  that  of  feudahsm.  First  he  abolished  all  allods,  transforming 
them  into  fiefs  to  be  held  of  the  king  in  consideration  of  rents  in 
kind.  Secondly,  as  we  have  mentioned,  he  appointed  jarls  as  rep- 
resentatives of  his  authority,  over  the  conquered  districts;  some- 
times, when  the}'  were  docile,  these  were  the  former  smaa-kongar. 
Thirdly,  these  jarls  were  permitted  to  retain  one-third  of  the  reve- 
nue of  their  respective  districts  on  condition  of  their  maintaining 
sixty  warriors  for  the  royal  service.  Finally,  under  each  jarl  were 
four  hersir,  who  received  an  estate  of  the  annual  value  of  twenty 
marks,  in  return  for  which  they  maintained  twenty  warriors  each 
for  the  king's  service.  Both  jarl  and  hersir  were  clothed  with 
administrative,  judicial,  and  military  powers. 

This  transformation  of  Norway  it  was,  together  with  the 
guarantee  of  good  order  which  the  vigorous  personality  of  the  king 
furnished,  the  abolition  of  the  strand-hug,  and  the  nose  tax — we 
should  to-day  call  it  a  poll  tax — all  these  reforms  it  was  which 
drove  full  eight  hundred  ^  families  of  malcontents  to  seek  homes 
outside  Norway.  Their  going  contributed  to  tlie  growth  of  Har- 
ald's  power  in  two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  it  was  a  good  riddance. 
In  the  second  place,  their  abandoned  estates  falling  to  the  king 
vastly  increased  his  crown  lands,  or  private  realty.  The  Xcrwc- 
gian  king  thus  came  into  the  possession  of  a  rich  source  of  revenue 
quite  independent  of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  feudal  administration 
of  his  realm  at  large. 

Harald  is  said  to  have  been  converted  to  Christianity.  This 
seems  improbable.  At  least  he  never  a1)andoncd  the  ])rimitive  idea 
of  marriage  as  a  mere  convenience,  but  took  to  himself  a  prodigious 

1  H.   IL   Boyc;cn  :   "  Norway,"  p.  65. 
51 


52  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

863-938 

number  of  wives,  both  consecutively  and  synchronously.  The 
numerous  progeny  from  these  various  connections  kept  his  de- 
clining (lavs  in  enduring  tumult,  either  by  getting  killed  and  so 
c<->mpelling  the  king  to  exact  vengence  of  the  murderer  by  under- 
t.'iking  a  ])unitivc  expedition  against  him,  or  by  usurping  the  gov- 
ernment of  some  outlying  portion  of  the  realm,  or  by  engaging  in 
war  upon  one  another.  In  this  sort  of  enterprise  Erik,  surnamed 
I'lodoxe — and  not  without  reason — was  eminently  successful.  lie 
was  also  his  father's  favorite,  and  was  made  by  him  in  his  last 
years  his  associate  in  the  government.  Harald's  intention  was 
jjrobably  to  supersede  the  elective  kingship  with  a  strictly  heredi- 
tary one.  In  this  he  seemed  at  first  to  have  succeeded,  for  after 
his  death  in  933  Erik  continued  to  rule  alone,  unchallenged  by 
any,  save  two  of  his  brethren,  Olaf  and  Sigurd,  and  their  united 
forces  he  f|uickly  overthrew.  However,  his  tyranny  proved  in- 
tolerable; in  938  a  general  uprising  of  the  people  drove  him  and  his 
wicked  Queen  Gunhild  to  seek  safety  in  England,  whose  king, 
.■\ethclstan.  immediately  made  him  ruler  of  Xorthumbria.  He  was 
especially  charged  with  the  task  of  repelling  pirates  from  the  coast, 
but  this  did  not  i)revent  Erik  himself  from  making  piratical  descents 
upon  the  Scotti.-h  coasts. 

The  leader  in  the  revolt  against  Erik  was  Harald's  youngest 
son,  Hakon.  the  ward  of  this  same  iVethelstan.  "h^ears  before,  this 
HK)narch  had  sent  a  sword  to  Harald,  but  when  the  latter  took 
the  present.  Aethclstan's  ambassador  had  declared  that  by  so  doing- 
he  had  accepted  vassalage  of  the  English  king.  Harald  was  greatly 
wroth  at  this  piece  of  craft,  but  was  finally  able  to  retort  by  send- 
ing 1  lakon  to  Acthelstan,  who  was  commanded  to  educate  the  King 
of  Xor\va}-"<  bnsiard.  Hakon  was  a  credit  to  his  tutor.  A  prose- 
lyte to  C^liristianitw  ]:)r)sses<ed  of  an  instinct  for  justice,  rmd 
ia\ored  wi'Ii  a  lia'jjjv  conciliatorv  nature,  which  ^oon  brought 
e\-en  iii>  ^wYkv  bretlircn  to  his  side,  he  is  an  attractive  tigui-e  in  an 
age  V,  Iiicli  ahoniids  in  xinjence. 

Ilakon's  jicrsMiial  r|ualities.  howe\'er,  hardly  won  him  the  Nor- 
wegian crown.  .\h)re  impr)rtant  v.'as  his  promise  to  restore  allodial 
lands  In  \]]v  ])(a~antry.  Tin's  ])rr)mise  he  carried  (jut  by  his  famous 
( i\\]c  Law,  \\]icrcl)y  lie  entirely  cli.anged  Xorwcgian  feudalism. 
Tht\iiig  l.,;t  lii-;  fief,  the  king  had  aho  hist  his  army.  However, 
^•-^''"^vay^  cnernie-;  were  eliietly  i)iratiea]  and  exlenial.  At  ihi-  \er\- 
'-"'IK''-,   iii'lced.    l".--ik   ];i.  .(];■,  xe's  si^n-   were-  scttiim'  out    \r<:\n  their 


KINGS     AND     HEROES  53 

952-963 

secure  retreat  among  the  Danish  Islands  with  the  in-tention  of  rav- 
aging the  Norwegian  coasts.  Hakon  accordingly  divided  the  coast 
into  districts,  the  inhabitants  of  each  of  which,  in  lieu  of  the  former 
land  tax,  were  to  build  and  man  one  vessel  of  war  and  to  maintain 
signal  fires  for  the  purpose  of  giving  general  warning  whenever 
pirates  should  approach. 

By  952  Hakon  was  ready  to  pursue  the  pirates  to  their  lair. 
He  landed  on  the  Island  of  Sjaelland  and  harassed  the  coast  of 
Jutland.  The  result  was  unfortunate,  for  Hakon,  by  his  incon- 
siderate measures,  won  the  enmity  of  Harald  Blaatand,  while  he 
failed  to  exterminate  the  pillaging  sea-rovers.  Consequently,  the 
year  following  he  was  called  upon  to  repel  a  Danish  fleet  from  his 
coasts,  and  again  in  955.  On  the  latter  occasion  the  stratagem  of 
one  of  Hakon's  jarls  gave  the  victory  to  the  Norwegian  forces  and 
secured  peace  for  seven  years.  But  in  963  Gunhild,  Erik's  widow, 
returned  with  a  third  Danish  fleet  and  took  Hakon  by  surprise. 
The  king's  meager  force  was  defeated  and  he  himself  mortally 
wounded.  He  summoned  his  nephews  and  entreated  them  to  spare 
further  bloodshed  and  to  rule  justly  in  his  place.  When  someone 
inquired  whether  he  wished  his  body  to  be  sent  to  England  for 
burial,  he  answered,  "  No ;  I  have  lived  as  a  heathen  and  therefore 
I  may  not  be  buried  as  a  Christian." 

These  words  refer  to  Hakon's  great  disappointment:  his  fail- 
ure to  establish  Christianity  in  his  realm.  About  the  year  950 
he  had  imported  a  bishop  and  a  number  of  priests  from  England, 
and  had  issued  a  prohibition  against  further  sacrifices  to  the 
ancient  gods.  However,  at  a  great  annual  Thing,  held  at  Dron- 
theim,  the  bondar  or  yeomen,  while  expressing  their  gratitude 
for  the  restoration  of  allods  and  for  tlie  king's  good  order  and 
justice,  yet  declared  that  they  would  never  forsake  the  gods  who 
had  watched  over  their  ancestors  so  many  years;  and  plainly  laid 
before  Hakon  tliese  alternatives:  either  his  desistance  from  all 
effort  to  introduce  Christianity  or  tlicir  rex'uU-.  Sigurd  Jarl, 
whose  wisdom  and  prudence  arc  praised  in  tlie  sagas,  turned 
aside  the  anger  of  the  people.  Assuming  the  robes  of  a  pontiff, 
which  his  rank  entitled  him  to  wear,  Sigurd  stepped  into  the  midst 
of  the  assembly  and  said  that  the  king  had  ordered  him  to  officiate 
that  day  in  his  place,  and  on  that  account  only  had  hesitated  when 
the  people  appealed  to  liim.  Then  after  consecrating  tlie  great 
ilrinl<ini'-  liorn  of  sacrifice  U>  0<lin  as  llic  Alfadir,  lie  extended  it  to 


54  S  C  xV  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

963-995 

Hakon,  standing-  the  while  between  the  king  and  the  assembly  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  screen  him  frc^m  notice  while  he  drained  the 
cu]).  Some  persons,  liowever,  noticed  the  king  making-  :he  sign  of 
the  cross  before  he  drank :  wherenpon  a  great  tumult  arose,  and  the 
jarls,  priests,  and  peasants  were  one  in  declaring  that  tlicy  would 
have  no  Christian  for  king.  Sigurd  again  came  fonvard.  and  in 
a  loud  voice  proclaimed  that  his  nephew  King  Hakon  was  a  faith- 
ful believer  in  Thor,  and  that  when  he  was  su])p()scd  to  be  making 
the  sign  of  the  Christian's  cross,  he  was  only  making  the  sign  of 
tlic  god's  mallet.  His  words,  for  that  once,  turned  away  the  sus- 
picions of  the  people,  while  Hakon  on  his  side  avoided,  for  a  time, 
all  further  cause  of  offense,  and  even  joined  in  a  solemn  feast  in 
which  all  partook  of  the  liver  of  a  horse  which  had  been  sacrihced 
to  Odin.  Later,  however,  repenting  of  his  duplicity  in  regard  to 
the  sacrifices,  and  of  his  weakness  in  having  taken  part  in  such  a 
heathen  practice,  he  returned  for  a  year  to  his  country  house  at 
Maere.  to  devote  himself  to  acts  of  penitence,  but  that  he  never 
completely  succeeded  in  exculpating  his  cr.nduct  before  his  own 
conscience  would  seem  to  be  proved  by  his  last  words. 

For  more  than  half  a  century  after  Hakon's  death  Xonvay 
suffered  from  constant  tumult  and  anarch}^  under  two  proteges 
f)f  Harald  Pdaatruid, :  first,  under  the  successful  pretender.  Harrald 
Graafell,  son  of  the  bloody  Eric,  and  then  under  Hakon  Jarl, 
who.  as  wc  have  seen,  when  he  had  finally  wearied  of  playing  the 
Warwick  for  Denmark,  succeeded  in  throv/ing  off  all  dependency 
upon  that  country.  At  last,  in  995,  Olaf  7'rygvasson,  great  grand- 
son (;f  Harald  Haarfager,  was  accepted  l)y  the  Things  of  the  chief 
districts  of  Norway  and  so  restored  the  naiive  dynastv. 

Olaf  resembles  his  great  ancestor  in  two  ])articulars.  The 
first  (T  tlicse  is  the  appeal  that  he  made  because  of  his  personal 
beauty  and  ])rowess  to  the  imagination  of  his  pco|)le.  Thus  his 
n.'inic  al-o  became  a  veritable  lodestone  of  heroic  legend,  ]^n•sucd 
vliile  but  an  infant  by  the  malignant  jcalou-=y  of  the  bloodv  lu-ik's 
f|ueen,  Gunln'ld.  captured  by  pirates,  bartered  'inio  slaverv  for  a 
rrnn.  (li-ro\cTC'(|  rind  ransomed  by  .an  uncle,  and  bnuiolit  to  Hakon 
I.-oTn  cnurl  iucogniio;  ])ursue(l  to  W^endland  by  1  lakon's  jealousv. 
led  by  ;i  \-i--ioii  to  Conslantino])le.  and  there  con\'er1cd  to  Christian- 
ity; tlic  indirect  .'luthorof  Russia's  conversion  ;  a  globe  trotter,  finally 
l.'Miding  in  l''ngland  ;  lured  thence  to  Xorway  by  one  who  intended 
liim  treason;  acceiited  a->  king  by  the  folk  of  Hronlheim,  and  prcs- 


KINGS     AND     HEROES  55 

995-1000 

ently    throughout    all    Norway;    such    in   brief    is   the   course    of 
Olaf's  youth. 

The  second  point  of  resemblance  between  Olaf  and  the  great 
Harald  consists  in  the  fact  that  both  set  for  themselves  a  definite 
goal.  But  here  a  difference  arises:  Harald's  ideal  was  the  exten- 
sion of  his  royal  power  over  a  respectable  dominion ;  Olaf  set  out 
to  make  his  realm  Christian.  The  methods  used  in  the  two  cases 
were  not,  however,  essentially  different,  for  the  Norwegian  bondar 
were  stauncher,  if  anything,  in  their  devotion  to  their  ancient  faith 
than  they  had  been  in  the  time  of  Hakon  the  Good,  a  thorough- 
going pagan  reaction  having  supervened  under  the  direction  of 
Hakon  Jarl.  Again,  too,  it  was  the  people  of  Drontheim  with 
whom  the  would-be  champion  of  Christianity  had  especially  to  deal ; 
and  again,  as  in  ITakon's  case,  the  ominous  temper  of  the  Thing 
carried  the  day  at  first.  But  only  temporarily,  for  Olaf  soon  got 
hold  of  a  number  of  magnates  of  the  Trondjer,  and,  confronting 
them  with  the  alternative  of  being  baptized  in  the  new  faith  or 
being  sacrificed  in  the  old,  speedily  brought  them  around  to  a 
proper  way  of  thinking.  The  peasantry  developed  a  fearless  spokes- 
man in  a  certain  Jernskoeg,  or  Ironbeard,  a  Norvv'egian  Thersites, 
whose  unvarnished  plainness  of  speech  to  the  king  himself  affords 
one  a  vivid  idea  of  the  uproarious  democracy  of  the  time.  Iron- 
beard,  however,  was  soon  disposed  of,  by  a  free  broadax,  devoted 
for  the  nonce  to  Olaf's  interests.  When,  therefore,  Olaf  proceeded 
to  hew  down  the  image  of  Thor  in  the  great  temple  of  Drontheim, 
the  awe-stricken  populace  liad  no  one  among  them  to  render  articu- 
late their  sense  of  the  awful  sacrilege.  Heathendom  now  fell  to 
the  defense  of  the  great  jarls  of  Haalogaland.  One  after  another 
the  more  important  of  these  magnates  fell  into  Olaf's  hands,  and 
were  either  baptized  or  tortured  to  death.  Success  was  within 
Olaf's  grasp,  when  he  was  suddenly  confronted  by  a  coalition  of 
rebels  at  home  and  pretenders  abroad,  and  of  the  monarchs  of  Den- 
mark and  Sweden,  Svend  Cleft-beard  and  Olaf  the  Lap-king.  This 
coalition  was  the  work  of  Svend's  queen,  whom  Olaf,  years  before, 
after  having  asked  her  hand  in  marriage,  had  jilted  because  she  had 
refused  Christian  ba]:)tism.  Probably  Svend's  enthusiastic  pagan- 
ism had  also  something  to  do  with  the  attack  now  hurled  agaitist 
Olaf  IVygvasson.  On  the  other  hand  the  Lap-king  was  either 
already  Christian  or  about  to  become  so;  and  there  is  alleged"  to 

-  li  G.  Gcijcr:  "  Ili^fcjrj-  of  llu'  SwmU-s,"  'riinuT's  tr;ui>;:if:i,n,  ji.   37   (18^5). 


56  S  C  A  N  I)  T  N  A  \'  I  A 

1000-1030 

have  been  a  treaty  between  bim  and  Svcnd.  whereby  both  the  pagan 
and  the  Christian  proselyte  agreed  to  aid  tlic  (hffnsion  of  the  new 
reb'gion.  Olaf  Trygvasson,  deserted  by  liis  snbjects.  was  hope- 
lessly defeated  in  a  great  sea  fight  off  S\x)!d  on  tlie  Pomeranian 
coast.  Seeing  that  all  was  lost,  the  despairing  monarch  leaped 
overboard  in  full  armor  and  was  seen  no  more.  Xine  days  later 
his  devoted  queen  Thyra  had  stai*ved  herself.  This  was  in  tlie 
year  looo. 

The  allies  partitioned  Xorway  between  them,  but  their  divided 
and  distant  authority  was  speedily  put  at  defiance  by  the  Norwe- 
gian jarls,  who  had  Xorv.ay  (piite  at  their  beck  and  call  for  a  num- 
ber of  years.  During  this  interval  a  pagan  reaction  ensued.  The 
question  may  arise  whether  this  was  so  great  a  calamity  as  one 
might  suppose  at  first  thought.  Certainly  Olaf  Trygvasson's 
method  of  proselyting  was  barbaric  rather  than  Christian,  and  if  we 
are  to  judge  from  the  case  of  Thangbrand.  a  priest  imported  from 
England,  who  was  Olaf's  cliief  assistant  in  tlu's  matter  but  who  man- 
aged to  find  time  for  a  number  of  piraticrd  enterprises,  the  Chris- 
tian clergy  was  not  an  example  in  what  we  should  regard  as 
Christian  living.  Certain  it  is,  too,  that  the  whole  contest  between 
Heathendom  and  Christendom  was  translated  l)y  the  ex]M)nents  of 
the  new  worship  into  a  contest  between  the  gods  of  their  faith, 
which  was  given  a  polytheistic  interpretation,  and  the  gods  of  the 
ancient  faith,  who  having  met  defeat  at  the  hands  of  their  antag- 
onists were  now-  writhing  in  hell,  and  hence  powerless  to  answer 
l^rayers.  On  the  other  hand,  that  the  new  faith  demanded  certain 
tilings  in  way  of  better  conduct  from  its  ])roselytes.  ^ve  have  seen. 
Hiese  may  i)erhaps  be  summed  up  by  saying  that  while  the  worship 
of  Odin  set  up  war  and  destruction  as  ideals,  the  new  faith  made 
I)eace  its  (jbject.  This  is  why  monarchs  of  ])oliiical  runbition  and 
insight,  like  Knud  the  Great  and  Olaf  Trygvasson.  so  earnestly 
c]iampir)ncd  Ciiristi;;nil\',  both  the  doctrines  and  organization  of 
which  were  forces  of  order  and  unity.  .Such  also  was  the  \-iew  of 
Olaf,  tlie  son  of  TIarald  Groenske  and  great-grandson  of  llarald 
llaarfager,  who  ascended  the  X^'orwegian  throne  in  1015.  In  a 
word,  Saint  Olaf — his  canonization  was  r.nly  local — resumed  the 
work  of  (')I;if  1^-yg\'a'^son.  Again  it  was  Denmark  which  stood  in 
the  way.  h'or  Knud  the  Great,  though  himself  Christian,  was 
ambitious  to  add  Xorway  to  the  rest  of  Jiis  e\iensi\-e  em])ire,  and 
so  did  not  scruple  lo  f;in  the  disc(jntent  of  Olaf's  subjects  into  open 


KINGS     AND     HEROES  57 

1030-1035 

revolt.  Olaf  at  first  fled  to  the  court  of  Jaroslav  o£  Novgorod, 
but  later,  in  1030,  ventured  to  return  to  Norwav,  only  to  meet 
his  death  at  the  hand  of  his  rebellious  subjects  at  Stiklestad  in 
Verdal. 

Yet  what  Olaf  failed  to  accomplish  by  his  life  was  brought 
about  indirectly  by  his  death.  As  mentioned  above,  Knud  made  his 
son  Svend  ruler  of  Norway  in  his  stead.  This  young  man  was 
entirely  under  the  domination  of  his  Englisli  mistress,  Aelgifa. 
This  was  humiliation  enough  for  the  Norwegians  who  had  assisted 
in  Olaf's  overthrow,  but  when  Aelgifa  set  about  to  destroy  the  local 
independence  of  the  great  jarls,  humiliation  became  calamity.  By 
the  new  laws,  the  ideas  of  which  were  brought  from  Denmark,  "  it 
was  enacted  that  no  one  should  have  the  right  to  leave  the  country 
without  the  king's  permission,  and  that  confiscation  of  property 
should  be  the  punishment  for  transgression.  ]\Ian-slaying  was  like- 
\\  ise  to  be  punished  by  confiscation.  So  also  an  inheritance  coming 
to  an  outlawed  man  should  go  into  the  king's  treasury.  Ships,  fish- 
eries, pasture  land,  nay,  even  the  peasants'  hearthstones,  were  taxed. 
Even  the  Christmas  gifts  wh.ich  tlie  peasants  were  to 
gi\e  the  king  were  fixed  by  lavv'.  The  Trondjers,  looking  about  for 
a  leader,  now  sent  word  to  Bishop  Grimkel,  who  upon  Olaf's  death 
had  fled  to  Sweden,  to  return  to  his  see.  The  cause  of  Christianity 
and  opposition  to  foreign  rule  seemed  thus  to  be  identified,  and  this 
identification  received  A'ivid  confirmation  when  Grimkel,  discover- 
ing the  burial  spot  of  liis  late  patron,  had  the  body,  which  he  gave 
out  was  that  of  a  saint,  exhumed  and  brought  to  Drontheim  to  be 
reintombed,  and  to  becf)me  throughout  the  }.Iiddle  -\ges  the  mecca 
of  hosts  of  pilgrims  seeking  cure  of  soul  and  body  from  its  miracu- 
lous virtues.  Svend's  power  was  quite  at  an  end.  though  he  re- 
mained nominal  king  of  Norway  till  his  father's  death,  when  ^lag- 
nus.  Olaf's  illegitimate  son,  venturing  from  his  residence  at  the 
court  of  Janislax',  was  gkullv  welcomed  by  the  Nor\\-egians  to  the 
the  throne  of  his  father.  Tlie  c^-cntial  ixiints  of  ^Vlagnus's  reign 
we  ha\-e  already  reviewed  in  an  earlier  ciiaptcr.  in  connection  with 
Denmark. 

Mention  has  .'ilrcadv  been  made  of  iho  dearth  of  matei^ial  re- 
garding early  Sweden  and  Norwa}'.  To  a  degree  this  deficiency  is 
remedied  bv  the  '"'  I fcintskriiii^la."  but  af;cr  the  fall  of  the  \'nglings 
even  thi^  <r..urce  I'aik  u<  for  Swc'lcn.  llumgli  it  bocomo>^  mi 're  and 
more  in  harming  respecting  tlic  -i^ter  state.     I'roni  An:-cariu-^.  how- 


58  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  .V  \  I  xV 

829-933 

ever,  who,  it  will  be  rememl)crccl,  ventured  into  Sweden  on  two 
occasions  in  the  second  quarter  of  tlie  ninth  century,  as  the  first 
missionary  of  Christianity  to  that  reg'ion.  wc  hear  of  a  certain 
Bjorn  or  Borca,  descendant  tlirougli  Bjorn  Jernside,  or  "  Iron- 
side," of  Regner  Lodbrok,  and  ruler  of  a  considerable  realm 
centering  about  Upsala.  Upsala  was  among  the  Svea  what 
Leire  was  among  the  Danes  and  Drontheim  among  the  Xorwe- 
gians.  Here  the  king  receixed  the  homage  of  the  pe(j])le,  stand- 
ing on  the  king's  stone  and  within  sigh.t  of  the  hill  whereon 
the  temple  of  Odin  had  stood  from  the  time  of  ]<'rcy-^"ngve.  Here, 
too,  the  people  met  in  their  great  yearly  Thing  to  hear  affairs  of 
state  discussed  by  their  jarls  and  to  join  at  times  in  th.e  discussion; 
and  to  perform  the  annual  great  sacrifice  to  Odin,  a  ceremony  in 
which  the  king  of  the  region  officiated  as  chief  ])ontiff.  It  was  the 
advantage  of  his  situation,  no  dotibt.  as  well  as  his  own  prowess, 
which  enabled  Bjorn's  descendant,  Erik  Sejrsael — the  Victorious — 
to  extend  his  sway  toward  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  not  only 
over  the  portion  of  Sweden  which  Gorm  the  Old  had  conquered, 
but,  perhaps,  temporarily  over  certain  portions  of  Svend  Tves- 
kaeg's  more  immediate  realm.  He  also  defeated  the  piratical 
brotherhood  of  Jomsborg  in  a  great  three  days'  battle  off  Tyrisval 
on  the  Swedish  coast. 

Erik  is  declared  by  Adam  of  Bremen  to  have  received  Chris- 
tian baptism  while  in  Denmark,  but  to  have  subsequently  a])0Sta- 
tized.  He  thus  left  to  his  son  and  successor.  Olaf  Skiit-Konung. 
the  "  Lap-king."  convert  of  the  English  Siegfred.  the  distinction 
nf  being  enrolled  in  th.e  table  of  sovereigns  appended  to  the  ancient 
law  of  West  Gothland,  as  the  first  Christian  monarch  of  Sweden. 
Olaf  was,  however,  much  less  aggressive  in  his  Christianity  tlian 
his  Xorwegian  contemporary  and  namesake,  wliom  he  helped  to 
overthrow  at  Svold.  He  discreetlv  refrained  from  interference 
with  the  heathen  worship  of  his  subjects,  and  when  the  Svea  in- 
formed him  that  they  would  not  receive  Christian  teachers  within 
their  boundaries,  he  decided  to  confine  his  church  building  to  the 
land  of  the  W'c^t  Goths,  within  whose  territory  he  founded  the 
bishopric  of  Skara — the  mr)thcr  see  of  the  north. 

1  he  age  w.as.  in  fact,  for  ,all  Scruidinavia.  one  of  fierce  democ- 
racy, whose  ])o\ver  no  monardi  could  long  withstand.  I'A-en  in  his 
Cfmstant  f]uarrels  with  N>)r\vay.  Olaf  had  to  con-^ent  fmally  to  re- 
ceive wi-dom  from  his  jjca.sant  subjects.     .\t  this  time,  says  Snorre 


KINGS     AND     HEROES  59 

993-1022 

Sturleson,  the  dominion  of  the  Swedes  embraced  many  provinces, 
each  with  its  own  law,  its  own  court,  and  its  own  judge,  lagman, 
who  was  chief  of  the  yeomen  and  who  responded  for  all  when  the 
king  or  jarl  held  a  Thing  wath  the  people.  Chief  of  the  lagmen  was 
a  certain  Thorgny,  esteemed  for  his  ancestry  and  honored  for  his 
wisdom.  To  him,  as  February,  the  time  of  the  great  Thing,  ap- 
proached, came  certain  envoys  from  Norway.  Thorgny  and  Rag- 
wald  Jarl  were  soon  won  to  the  cause  of  peace.  The  king,  however, 
still  bent  on  war,  would  not  tolerate  the  mention  of  the  Norse  Olaf's 
name.  Then  uprose  Thorgny  before  the  peasantry,  amid  a  great 
din  of  arms.  "  The  kings  of  the  Swedes,"  said  he,  "  are  now  other- 
v.'ise  minded  than  once  they  were.  Thorgny,  my  grandsire,  well 
remembered  Erik  Edmundson,  king  in  Upsala,  and  was  wont  to 
tell  of  him,  that  while  he  was  in  his  prime  he  marched  eveiy  sum- 
mer to  the  war,  and  subdued  to  his  dominion  Finland,  Kyrialand, 
and  the  eastern  countries  far  and  wide.  Yet  did  he  never 
deal  so  haughtily  that  he  would  not  endure  discourse  from  those 
Avho  had  aught  to  propound  to  him.  .  .  .  Bjorn  .  .  .  was 
affable  to  his  people.  I  myself  freshly  remember  Erik  tlie  Vic- 
torious, for  I  was  with  him  in  many  of  his  enterprises.  He  aug- 
mented the  Swedish  dominion,  and  warded  it  stoutly,  yet  was  it 
easy  to  come  to  speech  with  him.  But  this  king  who  is  now  will 
let  none  speak  with  him,  and  will  hear  naught  but  what  is  pleasing 
to  himself.  .  .  .  His  tributary  lands  he  let  slip  from  him,  and 
yet  would  rule  over  Norway,  a  thing  that  no  king  of  the  Swedes 
before  him  has  coveted,  for  which  many  must  live  in  unpeace. 
\\lierefore,  we  peasants  will,  that  th.ou,  King  Olaf,  shouldst  make 
up  thy  quarrel  with  Norway's  king  and  give  him  thy  daughter 
Ingegerd  in  marriage.  If  tliou  wilt  win  back  those  lands  in  the  east 
which  belonged  to  thy  kinsmen  and  parents,  we  will  attend  thee 
thither.  But  if  thou  heed  not  our  words,  we  will  set  upon  and 
slay  thee,  and  will  not  suffer  lawlessness  and  trouble  at  thy  hands. 
I'^or  so  did  our  fathers  before  us;  they  threw  five  kings  into  a  well 
that  were  puffed  up  with  arrogance  like  thee.  Now  say  forthwith 
what  tliou  wilt  choose."  ^ 

Olaf  yielded  for  the  nonce,  ])ut  seems  to  have  subsequently 
violated  his  pledge  to  the  people  and  to  have  given  his  daughter 
in  marriage  to  Jaroslav  of  Novgorod,  the  later  host  of  Olaf  of  Nor- 
way and  of  Magnus.  This  piece  of  treachery  would  certainly  have 
cost  the  Lap-king  his  crown  had  it  not  hapjjcncd  that  tlie  Svea  in 
"Turner's  translation  of  Gcijcr,  "History  of  the  Swedes." 


60  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  \  I  A 

1022-1047 

their  jealousy  of  the  men  of  West  Gothlantl  championed  Olaf's 
cause  wlien  the  Gota  in  1022  attempted  to  set  him  aside.  The 
upshot  of  the  matter  was  that  the  Gota  agreed  not  only  to  Olafs 
remaining  king,  but  also  to  his  son  Anund's  being  made  joint  ruler 
with  him.  The  peace  with  Norway  was  kept  nevertheless,  and 
when,  two  years  later,  Anund  became  sole  ruler,  he  aided  the  Nor- 
wegian Olaf  in  the  latter's  unavailing  defense  of  his  realm  against 
the  victorious  Knud.  Anund  also  strengthened  himself  with  sub- 
jects, we  may  imagine,  by  his  neglect  of  the  Christian  worship. 
His  successor,  Edmund  Gamle — the  Old — went  still  farther,  and, 
if  we  are  to  believe  Adam  of  Bremen,  actually  persecuted  Chris- 
tians, and  was,  in  short,  pcssiinus.  With  his  death,  in  1055.  the 
line  of  Upsala  kings,  or  Ynglingar,  claiming  descent  from  Odin, 
through  Sigurd  Ring,  came  to  an  end.  Sweden  was  still  pagan 
and  remained  so  for  nearly  a  century.  This  fact,  itself  the  product 
in  part  of  Sweden's  remoteness  from  Christian  Europe,  operated 
together  with  this  unfavorable  geographical  position,  to  perpetuate 
political  immaturity  in  the  northern  realm.  This,  indeed,  threat- 
ened to  become  stagnation  akin  to  that  of  Iceland,  where  Christian 
polity  was  also  very  slow  of  establishment.  The  situation  of  Den- 
mark was  quite  otherwise,  and  her  monarchs  were  in  constant  com- 
munication with  Christian  Europe.  Ilarald  Blaatand,  forced  t(^ 
pay  tribute  to  Otto  the  Great,  because  he  ventured  to  disregard 
the  hitter's  charters  of  immunity  to  certain  bishoprics,  must  have 
discovered  how  much  of  the  Saxon  m(Miarch's  ])(jwcr  was  due  to 
his  patronage  of  the  church.  Knud.  returning  from  his  pious  pil- 
grimage t(^  Rome,  where  he  witnessed  tlic  coronaticMi  of  the  most 
powerful  of  all  the  Roman  emperors.  Conrad  II.,  had  the  same 
less(;n  brought  home  to  him  still  more  vividly,  even  if  less  forcibly. 
It  was  ine\Mtable,  therefore,  that  Svcnd  h^stridscn  and  his  suc- 
cessors, making  their  imjKM^ird  contemporaries  their  exemplars, 
should  set  al)out  to  remodel  the  primiti\'e  constitution  of  the  Danish 
realm  along  feudal  and  theocratic  lines.  13y  so  doing,  whatever 
evils  ilic">-  una\'oi(lal)ly  Ijrought  u[)on  themseh'es  and  their  people, 
they  rai.-ed  Denmark  to  the  i)osition  of  ])reeminence  in  the  Scandi- 
na\-ian  world  and  even  to  a  position  of  ])romincncc  in  feudal  J£u- 
rope.  This  subject  we  shall  deal  with  more  fully  hereafter.  At 
present,  let  us  trd<e  a  brief  survey  of  the  Scandinavia  of  the  middle 
eleventli  centm-y. 

'I  lie   great    sfjurce   of   information    on   this   subject    is   Adam, 


KINGS     AND     HEROES  61 

1047-1069 

Canon  of  Bremen's  "  Dcscriptio  Insularum  Aquilonis,"  the  re- 
sult principally  of  Adam's  visit  to  Svend  Estridsen  about  the  year 
1069,  but  amplified  and  reinforced  by  the  author's  wonderfully 
broad  acquaintance  with  both  the  writers  of  antiquity  and  with 
more  recent  writers,  as  well  as  his  knowledge  of  contemporary 
official  acts.* 

The  first  part  of  Denmark,  says  Adam,  is  called  Jutland,  the 
length  of  which  he  indicates  in  a  general  way  by  saying  that  a 
journey  from  Slesvig  to  Aalborg  took  from  five  to  seven  days. 
This  region  Otto  the  Great  had  brought  to  subjection.  Not  so, 
however,  the  tongue-like  peninsula  that  extended  from  Ottinsand, 
to-day  called  Lymfjord.  Jutland,  a  sterile  region,  was  sparsely 
populated,  and,  except  the  river  valleys  and  the  coasts  of  the 
numerous  arms  of  the  sea,  the  salt-drenched  land  presented  a  vast 
solitude.  The  inhabited  districts,  moreover,  were  greatly  infested 
with  pirates.  The  portion  of  Jutland  that  Otto  the  Great  had 
rendered  tributary  to  himself  was  divided  at  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest into  three  bishoprics :  Slesvig,  Ribe,  and  Aarhus.  Adam 
notes  the  headway  that  commerce  was  making,  despite  the  risks 
imposed  by  piracy.  From  the  port  of  Slesvig  ships  were  wont 
to  venture  "  to  Sclavania,"  to  Sweden,  to  Smaaland,  and  even  to 
Greece.  From  Aarhus  ships  went  forth  to  Fyen,  to  Zealand,  to 
Skaania,  and  even  to  Norway.  Adam  himself  witnessed  the  crea- 
tion under  the  patronage  of  Svend  Estridsen  of  the  bishoprics  of 
Viborg,  Vendyssel,  Zealand,  and  Fyen.  The  incumbent  of  the 
latter  see  was  reported  to  have  been  a  pirate.  Having  at  this  period 
run  across  the  Island  of  Heligoland  at  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  which 
received  its  name  from  the  pirates  themselves  on  account  of  its 
grateful  stock  of  fruits  and  birds,  he  proceeded  after  his  conversion 
to  found  a  monastery  there  and  render  the  place  habitable. 

The  fact  is,  a  great  part  of  the  realm  of  Denmark  consisted 
of  islands.  Most  of  these,  however,  lay  to  the  other  side  of  the 
peninsula,  and  most  important  of  these  was  the  Island  of  Zealand, 
both  on  account  of  its  size,  the  bravery  of  its  men,  and  its  fruitful- 
ness.     Here,  indeed,  was  the  seat  of  royal  authority  at  Roeskildc. 

■*  I  use  the  edition  of  Adam's  writin.c^s  to  he  found  in  the  "In  Usiim  ScJio- 
lanmi"  series:  vol.  I.,  p.  2:  Hanover,  1871.  The  information  to  be  drawn  from 
the  "  Descriptio  hisulanim  Aquilonis  "  may  lie  supplemented  from  Adam's  main 
work,  the  "  Gcsta  Hammabiirgenis  Eciicsiac  Poulificuiii,"  and  all  previous  ref- 
erences to  Adam  have  been  to  this  work,  as  all  references  in  the  following 
chapter  will  also  be. 


62  SCANDINAVIA 

1069 

From  Zealand  one  could  cross,  in  a  single  night,  over  to  Skaania, 
formerlv  the  very  stronghold  of  piracy,  and  hence  very  rich  in 
ready  gold.  These  people  paid  tribute  to  King  Svend  for  the  priv- 
ilege of  continuing  their  depredations  upon  the  "  barbarians  who 
frequent  this  sea  "' — the  Baltic — ''  in  great  numbers."  Of  course 
they  abused  their  license,  and  the  weapons  which  they  were  allowed 
to  forge  for  their  enemies  they  turned  against  their  own  people. 
Despite  the  fact  that  Skaania  had  recently  been  organized  into  two 
bishoprics,  one  at  Lund  and  one  at  Dalby,  Adam  gives  a  very 
uncomplimentary  picture  of  the  inhabitants  of  this,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  King  of  Denmark's  dominions.  They  kept  no  faith  with 
one  another,  they  were  without  compassion,  and  had  no  scruples 
about  selling  either  a  friend  or  an  enemy  into  slavery.  Their 
laws  and  customs  were  contrary,  in  great  part,  to  right  and  jus- 
tice, and,  indeed,  of  doubtful  use,  except  the  practice  of  selling 
depraved  women  into  servitude.  The  men.  when  apprehended 
in  a  crime,  preferred  death  to  the  stripes,  aiid  besides  slavery  deatli 
was  the  only  penalty  for  wrongdoing.  The  Danes  were  wont  never 
to  shed  tears,  either  for  their  sins  or  for  dear  departed  ones — such 
effeminacy  being  held  in  abhorrerice.  ^'et  Skaania  \\';is  the  fairest 
to  view  of  all  the  Danish  provinces,  strong  in  armed  men,  opulent 
in  fruits  of  the  soil,  rich  in  merchandise,  and  full  uf  churches, 
possessing  three  hundred  of  these  to  Zealand's  hundred  and  fifty 
and  Fycn's  one  hundred.  In  fact,  Adam's  description  makes  it 
plain  that  the  very  wealthiest  portion  of  the  Danish  realm  was 
that  region  which  first  Gorm  the  Old  and  then  Knud  the  Great 
had  wrested  from  the  Swedes,  thus  afiT)rding  another  reason  for 
Denmark's  early  ])redominance  in  Scandinavia. 

Adam  describes  the  two  bishops  of  Skaania — two  quite  differ- 
ent t}'pes.  Henry  of  Dund,  coming  from  bjigland,  brought  Nvith 
him  a  considerable  accumulation  of  treasure,  and  led  a  luxurious 
life,  dying  finally  from  suffocation,  induced  by  immoderate  drink- 
ing, kgiinis  of  Dalby,  (jn  the  other  hand,  was  a  man  of  learning 
and  pure  life,  wherefore  he  met  with  the  greatest  success  in  per- 
suading tlic  barbarians  of  kiornholm  to  turn  from  tiieir  idols  to 
Christ.  .More(A'er,  he  truight  his  converts  to  dexdte  their  wealth 
to  the  building  of  churches,  the  relief  of  the  needy,  and  to  the 
redemption  of  capti\-es.  Ijornludm,  in  his  day,  became  a  refuge 
for  those  who  lied  from  the  cruel  persecutions  in  Sweden,  ft  also 
became,  partly  on  account  of  its  safe  harbor,  the  m.^st  celebrated 


KINGS     AND     HEROES  63 

1069 

of  all  Danish  ports,  both  for  vessels  seeking  the  lands  of  the  bar- 
barians and  for  those  bound  for  Greece. 

Adam  enumerates  fifteen  islands  and  provinces  of  Denmark,  all 
of  them  designated  as  Christian.  He  next  describes  the  various 
neighbors  of  the  Danes  on  the  mainland :  the  Russians,  the  Prus- 
sians, the  Bohemians,  all  living  in  varying  degrees  of  paganism 
and  savagery.  Courland,  rich  in  horses  and  gold,  is  also  the  home 
of  necromancers  of  so  far  reaching  fame  that  their  responses  are 
sought  by  Spaniards  and  Greeks.  On  a  remote  coast  of  the  Baltic 
dwell  the  Amazons,  the  males  among  wliom  have  their  heads  upon 
their  breasts.  There  are  also  cannibals  in  these  parts.  So  much 
for  the  Danes  and  their  European  neighbors.  As  if  realizing  that 
he  had  lapsed  into  excessive  credulity,  Adam  now  turns  to  describe 
the  Swedes  and  Norwegians.  Norway,  the  Danish  king  had  told 
him,  could  hardly  be  traversed  in  a  month,  nor  Sweden  in  two 
months.  The  latter  is  a  most  fertile  region,  rich  in  fields,  flocks, 
and  herds,  and  forests,  and  provided  with  numerous  waterways, 
so  that  every  district  is  full  of  foreign  merchandise.  "  Thus  you 
may  say  the  Swedes  want  nothing  except  arrogance."  "  All  the 
instruments  of  vainglory,  gold,  silver,  etc.,  which  are  apt  to  make 
us  foolish  with  admiration,  they  care  nothing  for."  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Swedes  were  polygamous  and  still  clung  to  their  heathen 
superstitions  and  worship,  though  Christian  missionaries,  if  con- 
siderate and  virtuous,  were  received  by  them,  and  even  regarded 
with  affection,  oftentimes  participating  in  the  Thing,  when  they  were 
heard,  not  unwillingly,  as  they  expounded  the  nev/  doctrine.  "  Ai\d, 
forsooth,  tliey  \vould  be  easily  brougl'it  to  our  faith,  were  it  not  that 
evil  teachers,  who  seek  their  own  selfish  interests,  rather  than  those 
of  Christ,  scandalize  them."  All  northern  people  were  remarkable 
in  Adam's  day  for  their  hospitality,  but  the  Swedes  excelled  all 
others  in  this  virtue.  They  were  a  numerous  people,  illustrious  in 
arms,  and  powerful  fighters,  both  as  horsemen  and  sailors,  whence 
their  success  in  warfare.  On  warlike  expeditions  they  yielded 
cheerful  obedience  to  tlieir  kings,  though  at  home  all  claimed  equal- 
ity. In  battle  they  were  wont  to  invoke  the  aid  of  their  gods,  but 
it  was  coming  to  be  a  gericral  notion  that  tlic  God  of  tlie  Christians 
was  more  pfjwerful  than  tlic  otliers,  and  also  more  dependable. 

But  if  Adam's  opinion  of  tiie  pagan  Swedes  was  higher  than 
tliat  he  entertc'iincd  of  tlie  Chri.siiati  Danes,  his  account  of  the 
Norwegians,   wlio  had  by  this  time  become  Christians,   was  still 


64.  S  C  x\  N  D  I  X  A  \  I  A 

1069 

more  laudatory.  "  Norway,  on  account  of  its  mountains  and  the 
rig-or  of  its  climate,  is  the  most  sterile  of  regions  and  adapted  only 
to  flocks  and  herds."  Because  of  this  poverty  at  home,  the  Nor- 
wegians were  once  great  pirates,  but  by  Adam's  time,  as  good  Chris- 
tians, they  had  given  over  such  practices,  together  with  the  black 
arts,  and,  content  with  their  poverty,  sought  only  peace  and  truth, 
and  lived  most  chastely.  "  ^Moreover,  they  hold  the  church  and 
its  ministers  in  such  reverence  that  he  is  scarcely  adjudged  a  Chris- 
tian who  does  not  daily  attend  mass."  Likewise,  they  fulfilled 
the  other  rites  of  the  church  as  scrupulously  as  the  Danes.  But 
there  wTre  exceptions  to  this  rule,  arising  generally  from  the  greed 
of  some  priest.  The  opportunity  for  venality  was  the  greater,  since 
payment  for  special  rites  had  not  yet  been  superseded  by  tithes. 
"  In  many  parts  of  both  Norway  and  Sweden  the  shepherds  of 
flocks  are  of  the  noblest  order,  living  after  the  manner  of  patriarchs 
by  the  labor  of  their  own  hands." 

Adam  concludes  his  '''  DcscripHo "  with  an  account  of  the 
portion  of  Scandinavia  lying  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle,  whither 
Christianity  has  never  yet  penetrated.  He  mentions  the  extraor- 
dinary length  of  day  and  night  in  these  regions,  and  explains  the 
phenomenon  by  reference  to  the  earth's  rotundity.  All  this,  how- 
ever, has  nothing  to  do  with  Scandinavia.  In  a  word.  Adam 
describes  a  half-agricultural,  half-pastoral  people,  dwelling  for  the 
most  part  near  the  sea,  which  they  are  just  ceasing  to  infest  as 
heathen  pirates  and  just  beginning  to  use  as  a  way  for  Christian 
commerce,  and  still  retaining  in  peace  the  essence  of  their  primitive 
political  constitution,  wliile  submitting  in  war  to  the  leadership  of 
chieftains  of  so  considerable  sway  as  to  be  properly  designated  as 
kings. 


PART   II 

SCANDINAVIA   IN   THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

1047-1520 


Chapter    VII 

RISE    OF    THE    CHURCH    IN    DENMARK   UNDER 
THE   ESTRIDSENS.      1047-1134 

SVEND  ESTRIDSEN,  son  of  Ulf  Jar!  by  Estrid,  the  sister 
of  Knud  the  Great  and  great-ganddaiighter  of  Gorm  the 
Old,  ascended  the  Danish  throne  in  1047,  ^^  accordance,  it 
win  be  remembered,  with  the  dying  wish  of  Magnus  the  Good; 
and  thus  became  the  founder  of  the  middle  dynasty,  which  held 
sway  in  Denmark  nearly  three  hundred  years.  His  right  to  the 
throne  was  contested  by  Magnus's  nephew  and  successor  in  Nor- 
way, Harald  Haardrade,  For  seventeen  years  Elarald  returned 
each  summer  to  ravage  with  fire  and  sword  the  Danish  coasts, 
extending  his  devastations  even  to  the  city  of  Slesvig,  which  he 
burned,  and  earning  the  appellations  "  Lightning  of  the  North  " 
and  "  Blight  of  the  Danish  Islands."  During  the  same  period 
the  Wends  and  other  pagan  and  piratical  tribes  of  the  Baltic  were 
also  extremely  active,  so  that  Svend  was  kept  these  early  years  of 
his  reign  incessantly  repelling  invaders.  Finally,  Svend  was  able 
(1064)  to  bring  the  Norwegian  monarch  to  a  square  encounter 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Nissa  River.  The  Danes,  though  they  largely 
outnumbered  their  foes,  were  defeated  in  a  battle  which  continued 
for  two  days  and  the  intervening  night.  Svend  himself  escaped 
only  through  the  gratitude  of  a  Norwegian  jarl,  who  had  been 
years  before  in  the  former's  service  and  was  indebted  to  him  for 
many  favors.  Conveyed  to  the  coast  of  Halland,  the  Danish  mon- 
arch, clad  in  the  garb  of  a  herdsman,  sought  refuge  with  a  peasant, 
whose  wife,  unaware  of  the  distinction  of  her  guest,  told  him 
flatly  that  she  had  never  seen  anyone  so  clumsy  and  ugly  as  he. 
The  king  was  obliged  to  endure  the  insult  in  silence,  but  he  did 
not  forget  it,  and  when  some  years  later  he  gave  the  peasant  a 
large  farm  in  Sjaelland,  he  forbade  him  to  bring  his  shrewish  wife 
thither. 

The  battle  of  the  Nissa  River,  though  a  Norwegian  victoiy, 
brought  Flarald  Haardradc's  raids  to  a  close,  by  a  treaty  which 
restored  the  ancient  boundaries  of  the  two  realms.     Two  years  later 

67 


> 


68  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  \  I  A 

1047-1076 

Harald  was  slain  at  Stamford  Bridge,  and  all  danger  from  that  source 
was  thenceforth  at  an  end.  Apparently,  however,  Svend  was  now 
unable  to  shake  off  the  habit  of  war,  or  perhaps  he  thought  that  he 
could  succeed  where  Harald  had  failed.  At  any  rate  he  sent  a 
messenger  in  1067  to  William  the  Conqueror,  asserting  his  right,  as 
the  heir  and  nephew  of  Knud  the  Greats  to  the  English  throne,  and 
demanding  tribute  and  homage.  William's  reply  to  his  "  friend 
and  cousin  "  was  considerate  and  politic — for  William  was  by  no 
means  secure  as  yet  in  his  newly  found  royalty — and  was  accom- 
panied with  handsome  gifts.  Svend,  however,  was  not  to  be  thus 
turned  aside,  but  two  years  later  dispatched  a  fleet  of  240  shipr 
to  the  English  coast,  under  the  command  of  his  brother,  Asbjorn. 
After  the  invader,  aided  by  a  considerable  follovring  of  English 
rebels,  had  met  with  some  successes  in  Xorthumbria,  the  Norman 
king  grew  apprehensive  and  determined  to  try  again  the  efficacv 
of  gifts.  Asbjorn  accepted  the  bribe,  but  derived  little  benefit  from 
it,  for  the  greater  part  of  his  fleet  was  wrecked  on  the  return  voyage 
and  the  traitor  himself,  though  he  escaped  the  sea,  was  driven  into 
exile. 

The  chief  feature  of  Svend's  reign  was  furnished  by  his  eccle- 
siastical policy.  Svend  was  very  devout.  His  foundation  of  four 
bishoprics;  the  composition  of  his  personal  circle,  which  was  almost 
exclusively  of  churchmen,  one  of  whom  at  one  time  was  Adam  of 
Bremen;  his  delight  in  church  history;  his  correspondence  with  the 
great  Hildebrand ;  his  ready  acceptance  of  the  penances  imposed 
upon  him  by  the  church,  even  to  the  impairment  of  his  health — all 
go  to  show  this.  But  Svend  was  also  a  barbarian,  and  perhaps 
there  is  no  more  admirable  scene  in  history  than  that  in  which 
S\'cnd  takes  the  role  of  Theodosius  and  Bishop  Vilhelm  of  Rocs- 
kilde  tliat  cjf  Ambrose. 

The  tale  has  it  that  once  on  a  New  Year's  eve,  when  the  king's 
scn-anls  had  been  making  merry  in  the  hall  of  Roeskilde  and 
drinking  mucli  more  than  was  good  for  them,  some  among  them 
so  forgrit  the  rc>])Cft  tliey  (nved  to  their  royal  master  that  they 
began  talking  of  his  bad  luck  and  want  of  coin-age  in  battle  Svend, 
overhearing  tlicir  words,  in  which  there  was  a  great  amount  of 
truth,  grew  \-cry  angrv.  and,  ])rct ending  he  had  reason  to  susi)ect 
treason,  ga\-e  oi-ders  thu'it  llic  scolTers  should  be  seized  and  killed, 
which  was  done  while  the  unfortunates  were  at  matins  t)n  New 
^' ear's  Day. 


THEESTRIDSENS  69 

1047-1076 

Somewhat  later  in  the  morning  Svend,  clothed  in  his  royal 
robes,  came  into  the  church  and  was  about  to  enter  the  chancel 
when  Bishop  Vilhelm,  who  was  preparing  to  celebrate  high  mass, 
barred  his  entrance.  The  king  tried  to  push  on,  but  the  prelate 
thrust  him  back  with  the  end  of  his  crozier,  denouncing  him  as  a 
murderer,  unworthy  to  enter  the  church  which  he  had  defiled  with 
the  blood  of  his  fellow-creatures.  The  courtiers,  on  hearing  Bishop 
Vilhelm's  angry  words,  rushed  upon  him  with  drawn  swords;  but 
the  king,  struck  by  the  truth  of  his  reproaches,  left  the  church,  and, 
returning  to  the  palace,  changed  his  royal  robes  for  the  garb  of  a 
penitent.  He  then  reentered  the  church  porch,  where,  bareheaded 
and  barefooted,  he  waited  till  the  bishop  came  to  receive  his  con- 
fession and  give  him  absolution.  Svend  came  for  the  third  time  to 
the  church  door,  but  on  the  final  occasion  he  again  wore  his 
mantle  of  state  and  crown,  and  his  procession  to  the  altar  was 
attended  by  a  Te  Deum. 

This  ceremony  was  followed,  three  days  later,  by  a  contrite 
confession  by  the  king  before  all  the  people  of  his  murder  and  of 
his  sincere  repentance,  in  proof  whereof  he  then  and  there  bestowed 
upon  the  church  a  half  hardc  or  hundred  of  land,  said  to  comprise 
a  portion  of  the  present  site  of  Copenhagen.  A  century  later  the 
same  area  was  given  by  Axel  or  Absalon,  Bishop  of  Sjaelland,  to 
Valdemar  I.,  and  Axelborg,  as  the  place  had  been  called  while  it 
had  ser^^ed  as  a  castle  for  warding  off  the  attacks  of  pirates,  soon 
became  known  as  the  merchant-haven,  or  Kjobenhaven,  or  Co- 
penhagen. 

Svend's  attitude  toward  the  church  was,  however,  not  in- 
variably that  of  concession ;  occasionally  it  was  that  of  defiance. 
His  great  shortcoming  was  incontinence,  and  for  this  he  did 
penance  repeatedly,  but  when,  upon  the  death  of  his  queen,  Gun- 
hild,  he  took  to  spouse  his  stepdaughter,  and  was  informed  that 
the  marriage  was  within  the  forbidden  degrees,  he  rebelled.  Adal- 
bert, metropolitan  of  Bremen,  whose  spiritual  sway  extended  over 
all  Scandinavia,  from  Slesvig  to  America,^  and  who  recognized 
but  two  masters  on  earth,  the  emperor  and  Pope,  and  these  grudg- 
ingly, eagerly  seized  upon  the  ojiportunity  afforded  to  bring  the 
Danish  king  to  his  knees.  Menaced  by  Adall)ert  with  excommuni- 
cation,  Svend  retorted  with  a  threat  to  attack  Hamburg.      The 

IF.  C.  Dahlniann :  "  CescJiichic  vuii  Dannemark."     (Ed.  of  1840.)     Vol.   I. 
p.  181  ff. 


70  SCANDINAVIA 

1047-1076 

Pope  no\v  inten-ened  in  the  quarrel  and  Svend  consented,  finally,  ta 
divorce  his  relative,  but  at  the  same  time  demanded  a  separate 
archiepiscopal  establishment  for  Scandinavia.  Adalbert's  diplomacy 
sufficed  to  ward  off,  for  a  few  years,  this  blow  at  his  project  of  a 
northern  patriarchate,  designed  to  rival  tlie  Holy  See  itself.  As 
the  former  guardian  of  ITenry  IV.  of  Germany,  the  great  prelate 
now  undertook  an  embassy  for  his  imperial  ward  to  the  Danish 
king,  with  the  idea  of  making  the  latter  tlie  emperor's  ally  against 
the  Saxons.  Eager  to  extend  his  dominions  southward,  Svend 
pledged  his  assistance  against  Henry's  enemies  wherever  found 
on  land  or  sea,  and  giving  out  that  he  was  to  undertake  a  cam- 
paign against  the  Poles,  fitted  out  a  magnificent  armament,  with 
which  he  ascended  the  Elbe.  Discovering  at  last  the  real  purpose 
of  the  expedition,  Svend's  followers  refused  to  proceed.  "  The 
Saxons."  said  they.  "  have  been  our  bulwark  .  .  .  how  ter- 
rible would  be  their  revenge."  Indeed,  tlie  Saxon  nation  stood 
not  only  between  Denmark  and  lieathendom,  which  was  vanishing, 
but  between  the  Danish  monarchy  and  the  ambitions  of  the  emperor, 
which  were  waxing  more  extravagant  every  day. 

His  reconciliation  with  Adalbert  did  not  cause  Svend  to  give 
over  entirely  the  idea  of  a  Scandinavian  archbishopric,  though 
he  pressed  the  matter  with  less  insistence  and  acrimony  now.  In- 
deed, his  motive  seems  to  have  been  a  statesmanlike  appreciation 
of  the  great  value  that  the  church,  if  under  Scandinavian  control, 
would  prove  to  royal  power.  The  well-nigh  nationalized  German 
church  of  the  period  v.ris  an  example  before  his  eyes.  He  was  act- 
ing consistently  witii  his  mru'n  ])urposc,  therefore,  when  in  1075 
he  adroitly  declined  to  receive  h.is  kingdom  in  fief  from  Gregory 
\'II..  his  former  corrcsjiondeiit  Hildebrand,  and  to  agree  to  the 
I)aymeirL  of  I'cter's  ])cnce.  though  Gregory  quite  plainly  hinted  a 
Sc<andin:i\  ian  archbishopric  in  return.  This  Svend  died  in  1076 
witlinut  having  achieved  in(lei)cndence  from  Ih'emen  for  the  Dan- 
ish c])isco])ary.  His  nan'ie  has  come  down  to  us  at  the  hands  of 
churclily  chroniclers,  like  Adam  of  P.remen,  as  that  of  one  of  the 
mo-;t   ])iuus  and  learned  princes  that  Scandinax'ia  ever  produced.^ 

"If  Sv  ;'.  1  'inr!  frillowtd  llic  iisiial  practice  nf  MortliiiuMi,  lie  would  have 
tak'ii  lii-  f;.:':  r' ■  ikh;;'-  v.tli  tl.e  addition  of  .vi';;  aiid  m>  \vcii;id  1k'  knDWii  as  Svend 
rif  <n.  'I  ],'■  )::]]  I  !f  ".a-  i;,  arly  related  to  the  royal  fannly  of  Xcjrway,  .ind 
tli(  r(  ;oia  1,:-,  -on  S\ind  ro;iid  lioa-t  of  a  \ery  hii;li  ('e-eenl  through  Lotli  his 
pitrei:!-.  In  w)-al<;iip-  df  il,,.  (haat  Knnd's  nejiluw,  S\end  Estridsen,  wc  must 
not    f(jr,-el    tiu'.t    J.' 1  ward    VII.    of    Lnyland,    as    well    as    the    present    King    of 


THEESTRIDSENS  71 

1076-1080 

Yet  of  his  fourteen  sons,  five  of  whom  became  in  turn  kings  of 
Denmark,  not  one  was  legitimate. 

Svend's  eldest  son,  Harald,  surnamed  Hejn,  "  the  Softstone," 
because  of  his  timid,  vacillating  disposition,  became  his  first  suc- 
cessor. His  reign  lasted  but  four  years  and  was  notable  only 
for  the  supersession,  undoubtedly  through  clerical  influence,  of  the 
judicial  combat  by  compurgation.  His  brother,  Knud,  who  fol- 
lowed him  to  the  throne  is  a  more  remarkable  figure,  and  his  reign, 
though  short,  is  filled  with  event.  A  brave,  energetic,  irascible 
personality,  Knud  set  out  to  establish  a  despotism  on  the  basis  of 
a  complaisant  clergy.  The  bishops  he  brought  to  the  rank  of  the 
great  local  magnates.  He  exempted  ecclesiastics  generally  from 
all  lay  jurisdiction.  He  filled  up  his  council  with  clerks,  and  gave 
the  churchmen  a  voice  in  the  slowly  crystallizing  assembly  of 
estates — the  Dannehof.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted  tliat  the  cause  of 
good  order  demanded  these  reforms,  especially  when  we  find  Knud 
compelled  to  hang  a  great  magnate  of  Bornholm,  Orgil  Ragnarsen, 
for  piracy,  and  the  people  raising  as  much  clamor  as  if  an  honest 
man  had  suffered. 

Other  indications  there  are  of  Knud's  determination  to  extend 
the  royal  power.  The  Wergild  seems  to  have  taken  on  the  added 
character  of  a  fine,  a  portion  of  the  indemnity  in  each  case  going 
to  royal  officials  wdio  consequently  became  most  zealous  in  their 
enforcement  of  such  payments.  This  measure  was  not  popular; 
still  less  the  king's  attempt  to  secure  a  tithe  for  the  church,  which 

Denmark,  can  claim  this  king  as  their  common  ancestor,  and  through  him  may 
trace  their  descent  back  to  Gorm  the  Old.  The  English  monarch  is  descended 
in  a  direct  line  from  King  James  I.  of  England  and  VI.  of  Scotland  and  his 
queen,  Anne,  daughter  of  King  Frederick  II.  of  Denmark,  and  the  latter  king, 
like  all  the  other  princes  of  the  house  of  Oldenburg,  traced  his  descent  through 
the  female  line  back  to  Svend  Estridsen,  whose  mother,  Estrid,  was  great-grand- 
daughter of  Gorm.  Elence  in  reading  the  history  of  Svend  Estridsen  and  his 
descendants  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  we  are  reading  the  history  of  the 
common  ancestors  of  the  royal  families  of  Great  Britain  and  of  Denmark. 
During  three  hundred  years  after  the  death  of  Svend  Estridsen  the  Danish 
crown  was  worn  by  princes  descended  from  him  in  the  direct  male  line,  but  in 
1375,  when  Valdemar  III.,  "  Atterdag,"  died,  leaving  no  sons,  this  long  line  of 
descent  was  broken,  although  the  Danish  throne  was  occupied  till  the  middle 
of  the  next  century  by  the  sons  or  grandsons  of  that  king's  daughters.  In 
1448  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Oldenburg,  who  have  since  then  ruled  over 
Denmark,  gained  the  Danish  throne  in  right  of  their  descent  through  Princess 
Rikissa,  daughter  of  King  P>ik  Glipping,  and  thus  Denmark  during  the  thousand 
years  of  her  history  has  changed  dynasties  less  frequently  than  almost  any  other 
country  of  Europe. 


72  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  VIA 

1030-1085 

he  wished  to  see  placed  on  a  less  precarious  foundation  than  that 
of  vohmtary  contribution.  Here,  however,  he  failed.  "  Give  us," 
cried  the  angry  peasants  in  the  1'hings.  '*  give  us  wliat  fines  you 
please;  we  will  pay  anything  rather  than  leave  to  our  children  such 
a  burden  as  these  tithes  you  ask  of  us."' 

Looking  in  the  same  direction  is  Knud's  bestcrwal  of  the 
jarldom  of  Sjaelland  upon  his  brother,  Erik,  and  in  creating  another 
brother,  Olaf,  Duke  of  Slesvig.  But  tlie  latter  measure  was  a 
serious  error  of  policy,  for,  on  the  basis  of  the  precedent  thus  set, 
the  practice  grew  up  of  granting  appanages  in  various  parts  of  the 
realm  to  the  royal  princes.  Slesvig  in  time  became  an  hereditary 
appanage  and  was  thus  partially  dissevered  from  the  monarchy. 
Also,  Knud's  various  acts  effecting  the  enclosure  of  extensive  areas 
of  forest  and  excluding  the  svvine  of  the  peasantry  therefrom,  and 
his  attempt  to  make  a  royal  monopoly  of  the  right  to  fish  in  the  bays, 
sounds,  and  fjords  of  the  Danish  coast,  by  impoverishing  the  lower 
free  orders,  reduced  their  importance  in  the  nation  and  particularly 
in  the  Things,  and  thus  diminished  their  ability  to  support  the 
monarch  against  the  local  magnates. 

To  his  gifts  as  a  statesman  Knud  added  the  prowess  of  a 
warrior.  His  initial  enterprises  were  directed  against  the  pirates 
to  the  east;  meeting  with  considerable  success  on  these  expedi- 
tions, he  next  in  1085  determined  to  emulate  the  renown  of  the 
Great  Knud  by  effecting  the  reconquest  of  England,  the  project, 
which,  it  will  be  remembered,  Knud's  father  had  attempted  unsuc- 
cessfully eigliteen  years  previous.  Knud's  allies  were  his  father- 
in-law.  Count  Robert  of  Elandcrs,  and  his  brother-in-law,  Olaf 
Kyrre,  King  of  Norway,  and,  with  their  aid,  a  fleet  of  1000  vessels 
was  in  time  assembled  in  the  Lymfjord.  It  never  sailed ;  again 
Xorman  gold  proved  more  valiant  than  Danish  arms;  and  forced 
to  witness  the  unaccountable  defection  of  his  commanders, 
the  Duke  of  Slesvig  among  them,  Knud,  in  exasperation  and 
disgust,  gave  over  his  plan,  dismissing  his  allies  with  costly 
l)resents. 

The  sequence  was  even  more  tragic.  Eor,  seizing  the  occa- 
sion to  punish  his  disloy.-d  subjects,  Knud  levied  a  general  capitation 
tax,  the  first  of  the  sort  in  Danish  histor}-,  and  ])lanne(l  to  divert  a 
portion  of  it  lo  tlic  coffers  of  the  church.  The  levy  started  a 
rel>cllion  in  Vendx-^K-l,  which  soon  swept  over  all  Jutland.  The 
king  lied  U)  the   [.^l.ind  ni  l'\en.     Tliilher  the  rebels  ])ursned  him, 


THEESTRIDSENS  73 

1086-1095 

overtaking-  him  just  as  he  was  seeking-  refuge  with  St.  Alban's 
church  at  Odense.  The  citizens  of  the  town  now  joined  the  angry 
Jutlanders,  and  a  crowd  closing  round  the  church  cried  out: 
"Where  is  Knud,  our  god-forsaken  king?  Let  him  come  forth 
and  show  himself!  He  has  borne  arms  long  enough  against  the 
rights  and  property  of  us  Danes!  It  is  full  time  we  made  an  end 
of  this  I  "  The  doors  at  last  bursting  under  the  blows  of  clubs 
and  staves,  the  mob,  now  in  a  great  state  of  frenzy,  rushed  into  the 
church  to  the  spot  where  the  king  was  still  kneeling  before  the 
altar.  Knud  had  by  him  his  two  brothers,  Benedict  and  Erik,  and 
a  few  faithful  followers,  who  were  soon  overpowered.  "  Now, 
King  Knud,  I  will  repay  thee  for  stealing  my  cattle !  "  cried  a 
peasant.  "  Take  that  for  robbing  me  of  my  oxen  and  horses !  " 
shouted  another,  as  the  mob  rushed  forward,  striking  vvildly  at 
all  within  their  reach.  Benedict  was  cut  down,  and  Knud  himself 
fell  pierced  by  a  spear  before  the  altap,  without  having  raised  a 
hand  in  self-defense.  Canonized  in  the  reign  of  Erik,  who  escaped 
the  mob's  fury.  Saint  Knud,  the  martyr,  became  the  patron  saint 
of  Denmark  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  and  at  his  tomb  many 
miracles  were  wrought. 

Before  Olaf,  who  was  chosen  Knud's  successor — because  he 
was  the  son  of  Svend  least  likely  to  avenge  his  brother's  assas- 
sination— could  take  the  throne  he  had  to  be  ransomed  from  the 
Count  of  Flanders,  who  had  been  given  the  custody  of  him  after 
his  treason.  Because  of  the  protracted  famine  in  this  reign  Olaf's 
subjects  promptly  tacked  the  epithet  Hunger  to  his  name.  The 
clergy  tried  to  persuade  the  people  that  the  prevalent  want  and  dis- 
tress were  a  direct  visitation  from  God,  for  tlie  murder  of  the  pious 
Knud.  "  For  seven  years,"  they  declared  in  their  sermons.  "  they 
had  seen  dry  springs  and  hot  summers  burn  up  the  grain  and  straw, 
and  wet  autumns  hinder  the  crop  from  ripening,  wliile  Christians 
elsewhere  had  bountiful  crops  and  early  harvests."  How  sincerely 
this  representation  was  made  it  would  be  vain  to  attempt  to  say; 
at  any  rate  the  evidence  shows  that  Germany,  England,  France, 
and  Italy  w'cre  all  afflicted  with  the  same  adverse  seasons,  that 
drought  and  flood  alternated,  tliat  dcartli  was  general,  that  domes- 
tic animals  sought  the  woods,  and  that  cultiva.ted  moors  lai)sed  back 
to  their  primitive  wildncss.  On  tlie  other  hand,  Olaf  was  not 
entirely  undeserving  of  liis  surname.  I'^')r  he  had  returned  from 
his  captivity  with  extravagant  notions,   and   in  the  midst  of  the 


74.  SCANDINAVIA 

1095-1103 

general  famine  maintained  a  showier  court  than  any  of  his  prede- 
cessors had  done.     His  death  in  1095  went  nnregretted. 

Erik,  Knud's  defender  in  St.  Alban's  clmrch.  was  now  chosen 
king,  and  with  his  accession  good  seasons  returned.  Erik's  sur- 
name. Ejegod,  "  Good  for  tlie  I'ycs.''  is  due.  liowever,  to  his  great 
personal  beauty,  fur  he  had  the  bhie  eyes,  the  blond  complexion, 
the  long  flowing  hair  which  are  ])raised  by  the  folklore  of  the 
north  as  the  distinctive  l^adges  of  the  noblest  of  the  Vikings. 
Erik  was  also  noted  for  his  great  strength  of  body,  which  was 
reputed  equal  to  that  of  four  ordinary  men.  his  skill  in  warlike 
exercises,  and  his  accomplishments  in  the  eight  arts  of  northern 
knighthood:  riding,  swimming,  skating,  seamanship,  javelin-throw- 
ing, chess-playing,  harp-inlaying,  and  versification.  Ele  also  be- 
came a  great  linguist  in  the  cr>urse  of  his  pilgrimages,  and  prided 
himself  on  being-  able  to  converse  with  all  foreigners  in  their 
native  tongue. 

Erik  conducted  a  number  of  very  successful  punitive  expedi- 
tions against  the  W'endish  pirates  and  again  destroyed  then-  stn^ng- 
hold  at  Jomsborg.  lie  is  also  said  to  have  given  his  ])eo])le  license 
to  make  reprisals  upon  these  sea-robbers.  l>ut  as  in  Sx-end's  and 
Knud's  case,  the  chief  interest  in  lu'ik's  reign  arises  from  his 
dealings  with  the  church,  "khis  was  the  period  (^f  the  great  "  in- 
vestiture conflict  "  between  the  empire  and  the  Papacy,  the  issue 
in  which  lay  between  relati\'e  rights  of  the  emperor  and  the  Pope 
with  respect  to  the  filling  of  \-acant  bishoprics.  .\  bishcip  per- 
formed a  dual  role,  tliat  of  vassal  for  his  "  temporalities  *'  or  lands, 
and  that  of  a  minister  of  the  church,  in  the  exercise  of  spiritual 
fu;ictii''ns.  1"his  distinction,  which  became  the  basis  of  the  settlc- 
mcr.t  of  the  quarrel  by  the  Concordat  of  A\'orms  in  it 22.  whereby 
the  emperor  ga\-e  over  the  pretended  right  to  in\-est  a  new  biFlK!;\ 
the  free  choice  of  the  cathedral  chapter,  with  tlic  symbols  of  b.is 
s])iritual  ofiice.  in  return  for  the  conijilcte  reognitinn  by  the  Po]!c 
of  his  right  to  grant  or  withhold  in\-esturc  in  tlie  temporalities 
()\  the  C]ii-C'i:>"!  <ce  in  rjuestion.  was  at  fir>t  ign(.)rcd.  The  cou^e- 
fjuence  of  i!;is  failure  to  an.alyzc  the  issttc  was  that  both  ])arties  In 
the  C'iiitr.  i\cr-v  ui:ide  extreme  claims.  The  Scandinax'ian  edition 
(if  the  fpiarrc'l  w;;-  i)riidnccd  bv  Archbishop  Licmar's  atlcmi)t  to 
deny  l-j'ik's  couti-  :1  of  certain  temporalilics  of  the  church  witlnii 
!  )cnniarl-;.  k.rik.  c-.Tonimunicaled,  ai)pcak'd  to  Ponie  and  went 
tliither  to  iilcad  hi-  cau-e  hi  [)erson  before  Irban  11.     lie  was  sue- 


THE     E  S  T  R  I  D  S  E  N  S  75 

1095-1105 

cessful,  for  though  Urban  was  a  zealous  apostle  of  all  Gregory 
VII. 's  doctrine,  he  had  little  desire  to  see  the  dangerous  metro- 
politanate  of  Bremen  profit  by  an  opportune  espousal  of  a  cause 
to  which  it  had  hitherto  been  quite  faithless.  Five  years  later,  in 
the  time  of  the  pliable  Paschal  II.,  Erik  now  on  a  second  visit  to 
Rome  obtained  the  great  object  of  his  father's  ecclesiastical  policy, 
an  archbishopric  for  Scandinavia.  Lund,  in  Skaania,  became  the 
seat  of  the  new  primate,  whose  jurisdiction  extended  over  Denmark, 
Norway,  Sweden,  the  Faroe  Islands,  Ireland,  Greenland,  Vinland, 
and  the  Flebrides.  The  first  incumbent  was  Adgar,  a  descendant 
of  the  famous  Palnatoke. 

Erik's  brilliant  success  on  this  occasion  Is  to  be  explained  in 
part  by  the  fact  that  he  was  now  the  brother  of  a  saint ;  for  Urban 
II.  had  consented,  on  the  occasion  of  Erik's  first  visit  at  the  Papal 
capital,  to  Knud's  canonization,  which  followed  in  iioi.  In  part 
it  is  to  be  explained  by  the  primary  cause  of  Erik's  presence  a 
second  time  at  Rome.  For  Erik  was  now  in  the  course  of  a  pil- 
grimage to  Jerusalem,  in  atonement  for  the  murder  of  one  of  his 
servants,  committed,  Saxo  assures  us,  in  a  frenzy  caused  by  some 
stirring  music.  Erik's  subjects  had  begged  and  implored  their 
beloved  monarch  to  remain  at  home,  and  had  even  offered  to  con- 
tribute a  third  of  their  substance  to  make  up  the  king's  blood-fine 
and  to  pay  for  the  masses  which  he  desired  to  purchase  at  Rome 
and  Jerusalem  for  his  victim's  soul.  Their  entreaties  were  in  vain, 
for  the  king,  who  had  become  imbued  with  the  crusading  spirit  in 
his  contact  with  the  great  Urban,  the  summoner  of  Europe  to  the 
first  crusade,  was  determined  to  do  penance  for  his  crime  in  the 
approved  method  for  conspicuous  sinners.  Neither  he  nor  his 
queen,  Botilda,  who  accompanied  him,  lived  to  enter  the  Holy 
City.  Leaving  Constantinople,  where  he  had  finally  received  regal 
entertainment  from  the  Emperor  of  the  East,  though  at  first  he 
was  regarded  with  suspicion  lest  he  should  lead  a  revolt  of  the 
imperial  guard  of  Norse  Varingjar,  Erik  died  soon  after  on  the 
Island  of  Cyprus  (1103).  Botilda  lived  to  enter  the  newly  estab- 
lished kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  but  not  the  city  itself. 

Not  till  two  years  after  lu'ik's  death  was  his  successor  choseti, 
for  the  people  were  reluctant  to  believe  the  sorrowful  rep()rt  and 
the  magnates  were  profiting  by  the  interregnum.  In  1105  lu-ik's 
brother  Niels  was  elected,  the  claims  of  lu"ik's  sons  being  entirely 
ignored.     Niels's  long  reign  of  thirty  years  was  calamitous.    Enable 


76  SCANDINAVIA 

1105-1134 

to  ward  off  the  attacks  of  the  Wends,  whose  king,  Henry  "  of  the 
Obotrites."  retorted  to  Niels's  demand  of  homage  with  an  inva- 
sion of  Slesvig,  the  weak  monarch  invested  his  vigorous  nephew, 
Knud,  who  alone  of  Erik's  three  sons  was  loyal,  with  the  virtual 
sovereignty  of  that  part  of  the  realm.  Knud  had  been  trained  in 
arms  at  the  court  of  Lothair.  Duke  of  vSaxony.  In  1125  Lothair 
became  emperor,  and  in  return  for  Knud's  defense  of  the  Holstein 
lands — in  conjunction  with  tliat  of  Slesvig — bestowed  upon  him 
the  title  of  the  deceased  Wendish  king.  These  honors  roused 
both  the  envy  and  apprehension  of  Niels's  son.  i\Iagnus,  who  began 
to  fear  for  his  own  succession.  The  jealous  prince  was  able  to 
secure  his  father's  cooperation  in  an  act  of  treachery  and  horror. 
Knud  was  invited  to  spend  the  yule-tide  at  the  royal  castle  at  Roes- 
kilde,  and.  responding  to  the  invitation  in  all  good  faith,  brought 
with  him  but  a  small  retinue  of  men-at-arms.  The  yule-week 
Knud  passed  in  safety,  but.  as  he  was  setting  off  on  his  return,  he 
^vas  ambushed  at  Ringsted  by  a  force  set  there  by  ^Magnus,  and 
slain  without  being  aft'orded  any  opportunity  for  a  fair  fight. 

This  deed  brought  no  good  to  IMagnus  or  his  father,  however, 
for  as  soon  as  Knud's  brother.  Erik,  known  afterward  as  Erik 
Emun,  or  the  "  Boaster,"'  heard  of  the  murder  he  tnade  an  ap- 
peal to  the  people  at  the  Great  Thing,  and  begged  them  to  give 
him  men  and  money  to  make  war  on  his  treacherous  uncle.  The 
Danes,  as  well  as  the  men  of  the  Slesvig  and  Holstein  provinces, 
had  always  held  the  grave  Knud  Hlaford  in  great  esteem.  They 
therefore  took  up  arms  most  willingly  and  Erik  soon  found  himself 
strong  enough  to  offer  battle  to  the  royal  troops.  The  two  armies 
met  at  Eodevig  in  Skaania.  in  the  spring  of  1 134.  Prince  Mag- 
nus was  slain,  and  all  the  bishops  and  priests  who  had  come  upon 
the  field  with  him  were  either  killed  or  made  captive.  King  Niels 
himself  for  the  moment  escaped  falling  in.to  the  hands  of  the 
victors,  but  in  the  hurry  of  his  flight  he  let  himself  be  persuaded  to 
cross  the  P>clt  to  Slesvig.  not  thinl<ing  of  the  danger  that  would 
bet'all  him  in  a  town  where  Knud  had  held  his  court  and  was  adored 
by  the  citizens.  Knud  had.  moreover.  l)een  headmaster  of  St. 
Knu'l's  CJnild  nr  T'ompanv.  W'lien  the  king  was  counseled  to  bear 
this  in  mind  he  laughed  and  said:  "  Tt  would  be  a  shame  if  Svend 
k'stridscn's  son  ^liMuld  have  a  fear  of  cobblers  and  brewers!"  and 
with  tliese  wor'U  he  rode  b(jldly  into  the  courtyard  of  the  royal 
palace. 


THEESTRIDSENS  77 

1134 

Soon,  however,  King  Niels  learned  that  cobblers  and  brewers 
could  prove  as  terrible  foes  as  kings  and  princes,  for  no  sooner 
had  he  and  his  men  come  into  the  castle  hall  than  they  heard  the 
outer  gates  close  behind  them,  and  a  ringing  of  the  bells  from  every 
belfry  and  tower  in  the  town.  The  watchword  of  the  guild- 
brothers  passed  from  street  to  street,  and  soon  the  market-place 
outside  the  castle  swarmed  with  armed  men,  eager  to  take  vengeance 
on  one,  for  whom,  although  he  was  their  king,  they  cared  very 
much  less  than  for  their  slain  guild-brother,  the  brave  Knud  Hla- 
ford.  The  clergy,  wishing  to  prevent  bloodshed,  came  forth  from 
their  churches  robed  in  their  state  vestments  and  bearing  on  high 
the  host,  but  the  guild-brothers  sternly  thrust  them  aside,  and, 
bursting  into  the  palace,  slew  King  Niels  and  all  who  stood  by 
him.  Thus  died,  in  the  year  1134,  the  last  of  Svend  Estridsen's 
five  king  sons,  sixty  years  after  the  death  of  that  father  and  an- 
cestor of  all  later  Danish  rulers. 

The  manner  of  Niels's  death  calls  attention  to  an  institu- 
tion which  often  became,  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  in 
Denmark,  as  in  other  countries  of  western  Europe,  the  nucleus 
of  town-life  and  municipal  association.  These  guilds,  or  confra- 
ternities, were  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  securing  to  their  mem- 
bers "  mutual  protection  against  violence  and  outrage,  and  mutual 
aid  in  case  of  sickness,  shipwreck,  fire,  and  other  calamities.  When  a 
member  of  such  a  fraternity  was  charged  with  any  crime  the  others 
were  bound  to  assist  him  by  oath  and  witness.  Likewise,  when  a 
member  had  been  murdered,  the  others  should  gather  the  fine,  or 
if  refused  to  be  paid,  demand  vengeance  of  blood  on  the  slayer."  ^ 
Both  because  of  this  attempt  to  intei'vene  between  their  individual 
members  and  authority,  and  because  clerks  and  laymen  were  often 
to  be  found  promiscuously  associated  within  their  folds — a  thing 
asserted  to  be  abhorrent  to  Scripture — confraternities  early  fell 
under  the  ban  of  the  church,  which  denounced  such  associations 
as  conducive  to  perjury  and  crime.  Yet,  as  with  all  institutions  of 
the  ]\Iiddle  Ages,  they  were  not  wanting  the  ecclesiastical  stamp. 
Donations  were  given  to  the  church  and  the  poor,  and  requiems 
sung  for  the  dead.  The  canonization  of  Knud  the  Pious  furnished 
the  Danish  confraternities  with  their  favorite  patron. 

A  different  sort  of  association  was  the  craft-guild,  consisting 
of  the  workers  in  a  particular  trade  in  a  particular  place,  the  object 
of  whom  in  thus  banding  together  was  to  secure  the  observance  of 

2  P.  C.  Sinding:  "History  of  Scandinavia,"  p.  93. 


78  SCANDINAVIA 

1134 

certain  regulations  regarding  apprenticeship  and  succession  to  the 
trade  and  to  assure  a  certain  quality  of  workmanship  from  co- 
members.  The  craft-guilds,  however,  often  adopted  many  of  the 
features  of  the  confraternities,  especially  that  of  mutual  assurance 
against  sickness  and  calamity,  and  both  are  to  be  looked  upon  as 
products  of  that  tendency  toward  cooperation,  which  with  the 
development  of  industry  and  the  rise  of  commerce  raised  the  town 
communities  to  consideration  and  political  importance,  while  the 
peasantry  was  gradually  sinking  into  greater  and  greater  de- 
pendence. It  would  be  easy,  however,  to  exaggerate  the  dimensions 
of  this  movement  in  Denmark  proper,  where,  for  reasons  presently 
to  be  stated,  commerce  and  industry  were  still  rudimentary  even 
at  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Of  course,  the  most  important  outcomie  of  the  period  of  the 
Estridsens  is  the  rise  of  the  church,  through  the  liberality  of  Svend 
and  his  sdus,  to  a  ])osition  of  inlluence  and  at'lluence  in  l^enmark. 
The  culmination  (jf  this  de\'elopmcnt  was  the  establishment  of  the 
archbishopric  of  T.und,  whose  early  incnmbenls,  grateful  to  tlie 
monarchy  for  past  favors  and  donations,  and  devoutly  anticipatory 
of  future  concessions,  and  ambitious  to  extend  the  sacerdotal  sway 
over  the  heathen  bordering  tiie  Baltic,  tlirough  the  extension  of 
royal  conquest  over  those  regions,  put  the  resources  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian church  at  the  disposal  of  their  regrd  contemporaries  with- 
out stint.  It  might  almost  be  asserted  that  their  alliance  with  tlic 
primacy  was  the  very  foundation  of  the  power  of  the  Valdemars. 
whose  era  is  mediaeval  Denmark's  "Age  of  (jlory/'  ^  et,  at  the 
outset,  the  situation  of  the  Archbishop  of  Lund  was  sfMucwhat  pre- 
carious. In  T123  a  second  Papal  bull  w;is  addressed  to  tlie  Dan- 
ish cliurch  on  the  subject  of  celibacy,  but  met  with  much  opposition 
on  tlie  pail  of  the  clergy.  Honorius  TL,  howc\'er,  was  as  seriously 
in  earnest  upon  this  point  as  his  predecessors  had  been  in  tlie  niat- 
Icr  (/f  investitures.  Accordingly,  upon  the  accession  to  tlic  ;ircli- 
bishopric  of  l>remcn  of  Xorbert,  the  great  chamiiion  of  tlie  celibacy 
of  tlie  secular  clerg\'  and  the  founder  of  the  Canons  Regular,  the 
powers  of  the  Arclil)islioj)  of  Lund  were  suspended  by  the  l'(»pe,  and 
Xorhci't's  swa_\'  e\i)an(lcd  to  the  dimensions  of  that  of  liis  ])re(k'- 
cessor>.  The  op])osition  of  the  Danish  clergy  to  celibac}',  nexcrlhc- 
less,  per-i.-1c"(l,  and,  nearlv  a  century  lalei",  two  hundred  Juli>h 
jjrie^ts  made  formal  mid  solemn  protest  against  the  reform. 

About    115(3  the  Liiglish  cardinal,   .\ic]i(jlas  Lreakspcar,  after- 


THEESTRIDSENS  79 

1134-1150 

ward  Adrian  IV.,  visited  Scandinavia  and  erected  the  bishopric 
of  Drontheim  into  an  archiepiscopal  see.  The  new  primacy  was 
vested  with  jurisdiction  over  Norway,  Iceland,  Greenland,  the 
Faroe  Islands,  the  Orkneys,  the  Hebrides,  and  the  Isle  of  Man. 
Though  it  thus  cut  into  the  dominions  of  the  Archbishop  of  Lund, 
who  had  been  restored  several  years  before  to  his  dignities,  it 
cannot  have  actually  affected  the  revenues  or  power  of  the  Danish 
primacy  a  great  deal.  The  dimensions  that  these  eventually  at- 
tained we  shall  have  occasion  to  show  later. 


Chapter   VIII 

DENMARK'S  AGE  OF   GLORY   UNDER  THE   VALDEMARS 

1134-1286 

KING  NIELS'S  assassination  was  followed  by  the  acces- 
sion of  Erik  Emun,  the  late  king's  nephew.  Erik  was  a 
brave  warrior  and  succeeded  in  keeping  the  coasts  free  of 
the  Wendish  pirates,  but  his  reign  was  marred  by  many  atrocities. 
Eor  example,  he  put  to  death  his  brother  Ilarald  Kesia,  and  his 
ten  sons,  and  as  the  ally  of  Harald  Gille.  of  Norway,  he  disgraced 
their  joint  victory  over  ]\Iagnus  Sigurdson  by  frightfully  mu- 
tilating ^Magnus  upon  his  capture.  Einally.  in  1137  Eskil,  Bishop 
of  Roeskilde,  seeking  to  make  himself  .Vrchbishop  of  Lund,  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  revolt  and  ultimately  brought  about  Erik's 
murder.  Erik  Lamb,  nephew  of  Erik  the  Good,  now  came  to  the 
throne.  He  was  a  very  feeble  ruler.  Eskil  succeeded  in  making 
himself  primate  without  even  consulting  the  king.  The  Wends 
revived  their  piratical  enterprises  and  Erik's  subjects,  forced  to  de- 
fend themselves,  came  to  despise  their  king's  monkish  traits  as 
much  as  they  had  hated  his  predecessor's  tyranny.  In  1147  Erik- 
died,  and  a  three-cornered  civil  war  of  ten  years'  duration  ensued 
between  the  adherents  of  Svend  Erik,  Emun's  son ;  Valdemar,  son 
of  Knud  Hlaford ;  and  Knud,  son  of  Niels.  In  the  course  of  the 
struggle  Svend  and  Valdemar  in  turn  sought  refuge  and  support 
from  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa,  who  forced  them  to  rec- 
ognize anew  the  imperial  pretensions  over  Denmark,  wh.ich  date 
from  the  time  of  Harald  Blaatand.  Eventually  vSvcnd  procured 
the  murder  of  Knud  through  the  agency  of  the  primate,  while 
Valdemar  only  barelv  escaped  becoming  a  victim  of  the  arch- 
bishop's treachery.  The  war  was  brought  to  a  ckise  by  a  great 
battle  near  Viborg,  in  which  .Svend  w.'is  slain  and  his  armv  defeated. 
The  chief  con^cf|ucncc  of  the  great  ci\i1  war  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  growth  of  the  ])ower  of  the  local  magnates,  among  whom  may 
be  clas^^cd  the  great  bishops,  and  the  conse(|U(Mit  reduction  of  tlie 
I)(Aver  of  the  bcjndar  or  }e'imcn,  a  \  ast  pro])ortion  of  wlujui  emerged 

HO 


T  H  E     V  A  L  D  E  M  A  R  S  81 

1157-1182 

from  the  struggle  as  serfs.  Thus,  when  the  Thing  came  together 
in  1 157  to  discuss  the  question  of  choosing  a  king,  only  the  nobles 
and  bishops  pretended  to  take  part  in  the  election,  which  resulted 
in  the  choice  of  Valdemar.  There  were  significant  changes  also 
in  the  manner  of  proclaiming  the  new  king  which  revealed  how 
much  power  the  higher  orders  had  usurped  in  the  last  few  years. 
Formerly,  when  a  Danish  king  had  once  been  chosen  by  the  local 
Thing  of  his  capital,  it  was  customary  for  him  to  go  from  town 
to  town,  from  hundred  to  hundred,  and  from  province  to  province 
to  show  himself,  and  to  receive  the  homage  of  his  subjects.  But 
Valdemar  had,  in  the  course  of  his  attendance  upon  the  emperor 
at  iMerseburg  in  the  days  of  the  civil  war,  become  thoroughly  im- 
bued with  the  imperial  notion.  In  lieu,  therefore,  of  making  the 
traditional  progress,  he  caused  himself  to  be  anointed  in  the  ca- 
thedral, decked  wnth  the  robes  of  state,  and  vested  with  a  golden 
scepter  by  the  bishop. 

When  Valdemar  first  came  to  the  throne  he  found  neither 
money,  nor  soldiers,  nor  trade,  nor  order  in  his  kingdom.  When  he 
died  he  left  to  his  successors  a  flourishing,  well-defended,  busy,  and 
peaceful  monarchy,  to  which  he  had  added  large  tracts  of  land  in 
the  pagan  regions  adjoining  the  Baltic,  where  the  Wends  and 
Esthonians  did  homage  to  him  and  consented  at  last  to  receive 
Christian  teachers  and  to  renounce  piracy. 

In  his  enterprises  both  of  war  and  peace  Valdemar  could  count 
upon  the  support  of  the  church.  His  twenty  and  more  expeditions 
against  the  heathen  took  on  the  character  of  crusades  and  as  such 
appealed  to  a  leading  motive  of  the  age.  But  more  particularly 
was  Valdemar  indebted  to  the  loyalty  of  Axel  Hvide,  the  great 
Bishop  Absalon  of  Sjaelland,  who  in  1177  succeeded  Eskil  as  Arch- 
bishop of  Lund,  after  the  latter,  brought  to  humiliation  and  disaster 
by  a  final  treason,  had  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Claravalle  in 
France.  Absalon  is  perhaps  the  greatest  personality  of  medic-eval 
Scandinavia.  At  one  time  a  student  at  the  University  of  Paris, 
upon  coming  into  the  primacy  he  proceeded  to  introduce  through- 
out Denmark  the  recently  codified  canon  law.  Pie  asserted  the 
right  of  cathedral  chapters  to  choose  bishops  independently  of  the 
sovereign's  wishes,  and  sul)ject  only  to  the  Pope's  approval.  The 
Cistercian  monks  whom  Eskil  had  first  summoned  into  Denmark 
found  in  Absalon  a  great  friend  and  sup])orler,  the  monasteries  of 
l^srom,  Vilskol,  Uingsted,  and  Oem  being  of  his  foundation.     But 


82  SCANDINAVIA 

1157-1182 

though  a  zealous  churchman,  Absalon  was  also  a  great  statesman 
and  willingly  placed  the  resources  both  of  his  personal  leadership 
and  of  his  position  as  head  of  the  Danish  church  at  the  disposal  of 
Valdemar.  He  was  also  a  brave  soldier  and  skillful  sailor.  He 
liked  nothing  better  than  to  stand  on  the  deck  of  his  own  ship  and 
command  the  seamen  directly  or  to  lead  them  on  shore  in  a  bold 
foray  against  the  pagan  foe.  From  his  castle  Axelborg,  on  the 
present  site  of  Copenhagen,  he  kept  a  sharp  lookout  for  pirates, 
and  it  was  not  often  that  his  fortress  was  without  a  row  of  heads 
set  up  in  testimony  of  the  episcopal  wrath  against  sea-robbers,  and 
as  a  warning  to  others  of  the  fate  that  awaited  them  if  they  should 
chance  to  fall  i:ito  his  holiness's  hands.  Absalon  it  was  who,  in 
1 169,  headed  the  assault  that  made  the  Danes  masters  of  Arcona. 
the  supposedly  impregnable  capital  of  Rygen,  and  the  seat  of  the 
great  idol  Svantcveit :  but  th.e  shedding  of  blood  being  over,  the 
militant  bishop  became  the  churcliman  once  more.  For  two  days 
and  tv^'O  nights  did  the  arduous  task  of  baptizing  the  captives  con- 
tinue, and  ceased  only  when  Absalon  and  liis  assistants  dropped 
down  before  the  altar  from  sheer  exhaustion. 

Toward  the  close  of  Valdemar's  life  a  revolt  of  the  peasantry 
br(')ke  out  in  Skaania,  due  ]:)artly  to  the  unaccustomed  zeal  of  the 
king's  officials  in  the  collection  of  capitations,  and  partly  to  the 
severity  with  which  the  i)rimate  himself  exacted  forced  services  of 
the  serfs  of  the  archiepiscopal  domain.  Absalon.  finding  that  he 
couJd  nr)t  compel  the  |)ea-ants  to  obev  his  orders  with  the  force  that 
h.e  himself  had  at  hand,  crossed  the  Sound  and  coming  to  the  royal 
court  at  Vordingbcrrg  in  Sjaclland  demanded  that  the  king  pro- 
ceed with  his  army  to  punish  the  recalcitrants.  At  first  the  king 
was  (lis])fj-ed  tf)  favor  the  peasants,  but  when  the  ]:)rima.ie  proved 
in.^istent  he  set  sail  for  Ska.ania,  declaring;  tliat  no  one  should  e\'cr 
say  ()i  King  Vcaldemar  that  he  had  friiled  his  friend  .Absalon.  F\-en 
}('t,  hr)\ve\'er,  Valdemar  tried  to  ]-)rcvent  bloodshed,  l-'jut  tlie  pea.s- 
antry.  already  in  battle  arrav  and  armcil  ^vith  scytlics,  axes,  .and 
rlubs,  \ie\vefl  tlie  royrd  advances  with  suspicion.  The  archbi-hoi). 
inoreo\c'r,  \\-as  nndonlitC'lly  anxious  to  i)ro\-oke  a  struggle.  "  This 
bcLjgarly  rabbk\"  sa.id  lie,  "  is  unwortiiv  lo  be  cut  down  by  tlie 
s\\<ird>  of  ivFlcincn,  we  iiad  bc^t  hunt  them  ^viIh  -wli;])  and  la^-li." 
"^^  ai  f'Wget,  my  go^d  friend,''  said  llie  kindly  king,  ''that  we 
arc  d.caling  with  men  and  not  with  dogs."  The  battle  was  a  li'iig 
and  :-tubb(.rn  one,  n_ot\vilh-lan.ding  tiie  poor  arms  and  humble  ranlc 


THEVALDEMARS  83 

1182-1202 

of  the  bishop's  foes,  but  it  ended  of  course  in  a  complete  rout  of  the 
peasantry,  one  consequence  of  which  was  that  Skaania  became  sub- 
ject to  tithes  until  the  Reformation. 

In  the  next  year,  1 182.  King-  Valdemar  died  at  the  age  of  fifty- 
one,  and,  like  many  of  his  forefathers,  was  i^uried  in  tlie  church  at 
Ring-sted.  Despite  his  severity  in  Skaania,  he  still  retained  the  love 
of  his  people.  As  the  funeral  procession,  headed  bv  Ahsalon,  passed 
by,  a  crowd  of  peasants  begged  with  tears  and  loud  cries  of  grief  to 
be  allowed  to  carry  the  remains  of  their  beloved  king  to  his  last 
resting  place.  When  the  archbishop  began  to  read  the  service  for 
the  dead  his  voice  failed  Iiim  and  he  too  wept.  "  Denmark's  shield 
and  the  pagan's  scourge,"  he  said  had  departed,  and  the  country 
would  soon  be  again  overrun  by  the  heathen  ^Vends. 

The  archbishop's  melancholy  predictions  were  not  fulfilled, 
however,  thanks  in  great  part  to  the  continuance  of  his  own  efficient 
administration  of  afi^airs.  When,  in  1184,  Frederick  Barbarossa 
demanded  that  Knud  should  appear  at  the  imperial  court  at  Ratis- 
bon  and  receive  the  crown  of  Denmark  as  a  fief  of  the  empire,  the 
power  and  credit  of  the  Danish  monarchy  were  sucli  that  Knud 
was  able  to  reply  to  the  imperial  envoy :  "  I  am  as  much  monarch 
in  my  own  realm  as  the  emperor  is  in  his,  and  if  he  fancies  that  he 
should  like  to  give  away  my  crown,  he  had  bett'^r  find  the  prince 
bold  enough  to  come  and  take  it  from  me."  Frederick,  engrossed 
with  Italian  affairs,  was  quite  unable  to  take  up  the  gauntlet  that 
had  been  cast  down,  but  had  to  content  himself  with  inciting  the 
princes  of  Pomerania  to  undertake  an  invasion  of  the  Danish  Is- 
lands. The  old  archbishop  went  out  and  boldly  attacked  the  intend- 
mg  invaders  before  they  liad  hardly  left  their  shores,  destroyed  465 
of  the  500  ships  they  had  assembled,  and  compelled  Pomerania  and 
the  \\''ends  to  recognize  in  Knud  "  the  king  of  the  W^ends  and 
other  Slavs."  The  fame  of  Absalon's  ex])loit  became  the  subject 
of  songs  and  tales  in  c\-cry  part  of  Scandinavia  and  even  among 
the  Varingjar  at  ]\[iklagaard. 

Following  the  annexation  of  Pomerania,  Knud  made  himself 
master  of  Framburg,  FuIjccI'C,  Ilolstein,  Laucnburg.  and  Mecklen- 
burg. Finally,  he  turned  his  arms  against  the  Fsthonians  and 
Livonians.  l^^r^m  tliis  time  on,  hcnvcver,  his  successes  were  less 
complete  and  he  made  but  little  real  progress  in  the  way  of  estab- 
lishing Christianity  among  these  peoples.  As  long  as  the  Danish 
troops  were  in  the  [)agan  k'lnd.s  Knud  found  it  an  easy  matter  to 


84 


SCANDINAVIA 


1182-1202 


compel  the  people  to  accept  the  rites  of  the  church,  but  no  sooner 
was  his  army  withdrawn  than  the  natives  returned  to  their  ancient 
practices.  ^Moreover,  his  efforts  were  soon  needed  nearer  at  home, 
for  the  emperor  had  again  succeeded  in  raising  foes  against  him, 
this  time  in  Denmark  itself;  and  at  the  imperial  instigation  a  very 
serious  revolt  was  soon  flaming  forth  in  Slesvig.  The  object  of 
this  uprising  was  to  set  Vaklemar,  Bishop  of  Slesvig  and  grandson 
of  the  assassin  of  Knud  Hlaford,  on  the  throne.  The  king's 
brother,  a  third  Valdemar,  had  just  been  made  governor  of  all  south 
Jutland  and  to  him  was  now  given  the  task  of  putting  down  the 


Slesvig  rebels,  wliich  he  did  quickly  and  thoroughly.  i^)ishop  Val- 
demar, taken  captive,  was  thrown  into  tlie  dungeon  of  Soborg  castle 
and  kept  there  many  years,  living,  however,  to  achieve  a  complete 
revenge  upon  his  namesake.  Bishop  Valdcmar's  ally,  Count  Adolf 
(jf  llolstein,  was  also  thrown  into  Sol)org  keep. 

Knud's  last  }cars  were  disturbed  by  a  dis])ute  with  Tliilip  Augus- 
tus of  France,  provoked  by  I'hilip's  repudiation  of  liis  (jucen,  Ingc- 
borg,  Knud's  si;-lcr.  Xot  till  tlie  Poj^e  himself.  Innocent  III.,  had 
repeatedly  intervened  in  the  (juarrel  did  I'hilip  yield  and  bring  to 
an  end  the  danger  of  a  war  between  the  two  monarchs.  Knud  died 
in  tlie  }ear  j2c)j,  liaxing  been  preceded  to  the  gra\e  a  few  months 


THEVALDE:\IARS  85 

1202-1219 

by  the  great  Absalon,  In  the  absence  of  descendants,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Valdemar,  who  was  in  northern  Germany  at 
the  time  of  the  king's  deatli.  So  great  had  been  Valdemar's  suc- 
cess in  this  quarter  that  the  princes  of  Holstein,  Lauenburg, 
Pomerania,  Rygen,  and  Mecklenburg,  and  the  Hanse  Leaguers  con- 
vened at  Liibeck  to  do  him  homage  as  their  sovereign  lord  without 
waiting  to  learn  upon  whom  the  choice  of  the  Danish  estates  had 
fallen. 

Valdemar  II.  immediately  upon  taking  the  throne  proceeded 
to  justify  the  bestowal  upon  himself  of  the  surname  Sejr,  the 
Conqueror.  He  comipelled  Adolf,  Count  Duke  of  Holstein,  to  give 
up  his  duchy  and  the  adjoining  lands  to  Albert  of  Orlamunde,  who 
as  the  king's  nephew  already  held  Slesvig  and  now  took  the  title 
of  Duke  of  North  Albingia.  Valdemar  next  turned  his  attention  to 
Pomerania.  This  was  the  period  of  the  most  powerful  of  all  the 
Popes,  Innocent  III.,  when  the  unremitting  struggle  between  the 
Papacy  and  the  empire  was  highly  kaleidoscopic.  Denmark  was 
at  this  moment  a  real  factor  in  the  world  empire,  and  Valdemar's 
alliance  was  sought  successively  by  Philip  of  Suabia,  Otto  IV.,  and 
Frederick  II.  in  their  struggle  for  the  imperial  crown.  It  was 
partly  due  to  clerical  influence  directed  by  the  Papal  interest  and 
partly  to  wise  and  statesmanlike  distrust  of  German  power  in  north- 
ern Europe  that  Valdemar  finally  cast  in  his  lot  with  Frederick  II., 
who  was  always  willing  to  sacrifice  his  German  interests  to  his 
Italian  schemes,  and  who,  in  accordance  with  this  policy,  made  over 
to  the  Danish  king  in  12 17,  subject  only  to  the  paramount  claims 
of  the  empire,  all  the  territories  north  of  the  Oder  and  El1)e.  Three 
years  before  this  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  the  ]\Iargrave  of  Branden- 
burg, the  Archbishop  of  Bremen,  and  numerous  other  princes  of 
northern  Germany  had  formed  a  league  for  the  purpose  of  checking 
the  growth  of  Danish  power  along  the  Baltic  coast.  The  combina- 
tion had  proved  futile  and  Frederick's  concession  simply  recognized 
accomplished  facts. 

Valdemar's  success  in  Germany  led  him  early  in  his  reign  to 
attempt  to  establish  his  sway  over  Norway  and  Sweden,  but  in 
neither  kingdom  did  he  meet  with  any  enduring  success.  iMiiriUy, 
in  1 2 10,  a  signal  defeat  compelled  him  to  withdraw  his  force,>  from 
Sweden  and  to  make  peace  with  the  Swedish  king,  Erik  Knudsson, 
by  giving  the  latter  his  sister  in  marriage.  This  was  the  time  01 
the  fourth  crusade.    Valdemar,  a  zealous  son  of  the  church,  grc;itl^' 


86  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1219-1223 

regretted  his  inability  to  join  the  thousands  of  liis  subjects  \vho 
were  setting  out  for  the  Holy  Land,  in  retribution  wherefore  he 
obtained,  in  12 19,  the  Pope's  special  sanction  for  a  crusade  against 
the  pagans  of  Esthonia.  Armed  with  tlie  Papal  bull,  which  ga\-e 
him  sovereignty  of  all  the  land  he  might  conquer  and  con\-ert, 
\'aldemar  entered  upon  his  undertaking  with  an  army  of  60,000 
men  and  a  fleet  of  1400  ships,  such  an  array  as  Scandiiiavia  had 
nc\"er  before  witnessed,  and  had  soon  completely  overrun  Esthonia. 
Tlie  Danes  found,  however,  formidable  ri\'als  in  their  work  of 
proselyting  in  the  Li\-onian  Knights  of  the  Sword,  who  claimed  a 
monopoly  of  the  missionary  function  in  these  regions,  and  a  series 
of  sharp  battles  had  to  be  fought  and  much  blood  shed  before  it 
was  settled  which  party  might  convert  the  heathen.  The  ])lain 
narrati\'e  of  these  relig'ious  wars  in  Esthonia  was  subsequently  em- 
bellished with  many  marvels,  one  of  winch  relates  to  the  first  ap- 
pearanxe  of  the  Dannebrog  or  national  standard.  -According  to 
the  myth,  it  descended  from  heaven  v.'hile  tlie  ])rin.iate  an.d  .Vn- 
dreas  Stmeson,  the  great  Absalon's  successor,  were  ]iraying  for 
victory  at  the  far-famed  battle  of  \\'olmar.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  Pope  may  ha\'e  sent  a  consccra.ted  l);mner  bearing  "  the 
\\'hite  cross  in  a  blood-red  field  "'  as  a  token  of  his  favor  and  that 
its  sudden  apj)earance  when  the  Danes  were  beginning  to  wa\'er  be- 
fore the  pagan  ranks  ga\'e  the  \-ictory  \vh.ich  in  kiter  times  was 
believed  t*)  have  been  the  result  of  the  primate's  ])ra}crs. 

The  kingdrjm  of  Denmark  now  included  Denmark.  Ilolstcin, 
Ditmar>h,  Lauenburg,  Schwerin,  Mecklenburg,  Rygen,  Pomcrr.nia, 
I'^stlionia,  Oesel,  and  sex'eral  tracts  of  Ihais^ia  and  Courkmd.  \''al- 
demar  II.  was  now  at  the  height  of  his  glory,  a  glory.  moreo\-er. 
which  far  smpassed  that  of  any  of  liis  predecessors.  .\e\'erllie1e--<, 
it  would  be  easy  to  exriggerale  his  actu.<al  ])owcr,  for  he  was  ci  m- 
slantly  surrounded  by  foes  both  secret  and  open,  who  were  seeking 
to  encomp^ciss  his  downfrdl.  h'ear  alone  kei)t  liis  w'.-^als  orderlv  rnid 
sul)nn"-~-i\e  and  it  was  e\-ident  that  emperor  rnid  !'o])e  alike,  thou.gh 
both  jjrclended  tfj  fa\-or  him.  avouM  gladlx'  sec  the  cr.d  of  Den- 
mark's sn])rcmac\-  in  Scan(lina\i;i  and  nortliern  (Icrnian}-.  A  s;n 
gle  turn  of  tnrtr.ne,  a  di^a-lom.s  nighl.  serxed  to  cxp'i-e  the  insta- 
bility of  tlic  Kingi'f  I  )ennia.r!-."s  graiidetir.  Am^  ii;^- ilie  f;ike  friends 
of  the  king,  who  were  in  realitx'  harboring  ])rojeet,-;  of  re\'enge. 
there  w.'is  nf^ne  who  seemed  nmre  attached  to  the  r^yal  person 
th<an    lienrw   Courit-Duk'e  of  Schwerin,   and   none   who   in   realitv 


THE     VALDEMARS  87 

1223-1227 

hated  him  more  bitterly.  In  the  spring  of  1223  the  king  and  his 
eldest  son,  Prince  Valdemar,  landed  on  the  Island  of  Lyo,  attended 
by  only  a  few  servants,  and  proceeded  to  engage  in  the  king's 
favorite  pastime  of  hunting.  This  was  Count  Henry's  opportunity. 
While  the  king  and  his  son  were  sleeping  within  their  improvised 
tent,  their  attendants  and  huntsmen  scattered  about  in  slumber  also. 
Count  Henry  landed  with  a  well-armed  party  of  conspirators,  who, 
making  their  way  cautiously  among  the  sleepers,  entered  the  royal 
tent,  seized  the  king  and  prince,  drew  sacks  of  wool  and  straw  over 
their  heads,  and  made  off  with  them  without  rousing  a  single  one 
of  thiC  royal  attendants.  Thus  gagged  and  bound,  the  king  and 
prince  were  carried  through  the  midst  of  their  own  people  to  the 
strand,  and  deposited  helpless  as  logs  in  the  bottom  of  a  boat 
which  was  awaiting  them,  and  quickly  transported  across  the  nar- 
row strait  to  the  opposite  shore  of  Fyen.  There  the  conspirators 
transferred  their  victims  to  a  swift-sailing  yacht.  The  wind  prov- 
ing favorable,  on  the  following  day,  almost  before  the  king's  serv- 
ants at  Lyo  had  discovered  their  disappearance,  tlie  lately  dreaded 
and  powerful  King  of  Denmark  and  his  son  and  designated  suc- 
cessor were  put  ashore  at  a  lonely  spot  on  the  German  coast,  and 
thence,  still  gagged  and  bound,  and  tethered  to  a  horse,  were  hur- 
ried off  at  full  gallop  to  the  castle  of  Danneberg  in  Hanover,  which 
had  been  lent  to  Count  Henry  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  royal 
prison. 

It  certainly  affords  us  a  very  striking  idea  of  the  lawlessness 
and  anarchy  of  the  feudal  age  in  northern  Europe  to  contemplate 
King  Valdemar's  fate  and  to  consider  that  for  three  years  the  most 
powerful  monarch  of  Scandinavia  and  one  of  the  most  powerful 
of  western  Europe  was  left  to  endure  the  pangs  of  hunger  and 
cold  and  the  bonds  of  a  common  felon,  although  in  the  interim 
both  r'o])e  and  em])eror  were  fulminating  against  his  caj^tors  all  the 
penalties  that  the  law,  secular  and  canonical,  decreed  against  those 
who  slioulcl  venture  to  rriise  t'leir  hands  against  a  prince  anointed 
by  th,e  cliurch  and  liolding  lands  in  fief  from  the  imperial  crown. 
CcAuit  licnry  ga\-e  facile  pn^mises  that  he  W(;uld  without  delay 
attend  to  the  release  of  King  Valdemar  and  his  son.  But  he  as 
easily  evaded  the  fulfillment  of  his  promises,  knowing  full  well  that 
Ronie  and  R'ltisbon  were  too  remote  from  Danncl.)crg  to  furnisli 
real  occa-ion  f.or  alarm,  an.d  ;i\vare  also  that  \h.c.  other  ])rinces  in 
northern!  Germanv  were  at  one   with   him  ni  his  determination  to 


88  S  C  A  X  I)  I  X  A  \  I  A 

1223-1227 

keep  tlieir  common  enemy  under  biilt  and  bar  as  long  as  possible. 
Even  from  Denmark  there  was  but  little  reason  to  fear  anything. 
Inir  although  the  Danish  nation  was  avid  for  vengeance,  and  eagerly 
demanded  in  the  local  Things  to  be  led  to  the  rescue  of  their  be- 
loved monarch,  there  was  not  a  prince  nor  magnate  among  them 
willing  to  undertake  the  rescue  of  the  captive.  Exception  should 
be  made,  however,  of  Albert,  Count  of  Orlamunde,  who,  having 
learned  of  his  uncle's  capture  while  on  his  way  to  Rome,  returned 
in  luiste  to  Dcimiark,  and  collecting  some  forces  marched  into  Han- 
over, and  gave  battle  to  the  German  princes  before  Danneberg. 
The  Danes,  liowever,  were  easily  defeated  and  Albert  himself, 
taken  prisoner,  was  thrown  into  the  same  dungeon  with  the  king 
and  prince.  The  captives  were  now  in  a  worse  state  than  before. 
Finally  \'aklemar,  seeing  no  other  chance  of  escape  from  captivity, 
agreed  to  the  terms  of  release  offered  by  the  Count  of  Schwerin. 
lie  must  pay  a  ransom  of  40.000  silver  marks  ^  for  himself  and  his 
son.  He  must  cause  his  three  younger  sons  to  1)e  brought  to  Danne- 
berg as  hostages  till  tlie  money  was  paid.  He  must  surrender  to 
"  Black  Henry"  all  the  jewels  of  the  late  Queen  Berangaria  which 
had  not  already  been  bestowed  upon  church.es  and  monasteries, 
and  one  hundred  men-at-arms  equipped  with  hcirscs,  armor,  and 
weai)ons.  Also  he  must  forfeit  to  the  emperor  all  the  territory  be- 
tween tlie  I^ibe  and  the  Oder,  including  Holstein  and  North 
Alljingia,  and  the  whole  country  of  the  Wends  except  the  Island  of 
Rygen.  On  tliese  terms  the  royal  captives  were  released  and  al- 
lowed to  return  to  Denmark,  which  was  in  a  frightful  state  of 
di.-order  and  anarchy. 

\'a](lemar's  lirst  step  toward  recovering  his  position  was  to 
ri])ply  to  t!ie  I'opc  for  absolution  from  the  oath  which  he  had  taken 
lo  >qva\  ]]']<  tlnx-e  yiiung  sons  into  captivity.  'Jdie  Pope  granted  tlie 
])rayer,  informing  Count  Henry  that  if  he  tried  to  ])ress  his  unjust 
claims  a.gain-t  tlie  King  of  Denmark  he  would  be  excommunicated. 
Tlie  nnf.  iriunatc  \'alileniar"s  humiliations  were  not.  however,  even 
yet  at  an  end.  In  i  jjy  th.e  jieasants  (jf  the  Ditiuarshes  having  re- 
fn-cd  to  jjay  the  tril)nte  which  the  Danish  crown  had  long  claimed 
from  thcni.  made  gi  .od  tlieir  refusal  by  defeating  the  army  that 
X'aldcmar  led  again-t  tluMU.  The  king  himself,  struck  to  the 
grrjund  \\itl;  an  arrow.  e^ca])cd  a  second  cai)tin'e  onlv  through  the 

'   i  III    I;  .ilk,  .  ':ial  t'l  n'lfiiit  ti-lit  (iiiiice^,  was  the  unit  of  weight  down  to  the 
introduction  of  ihu  uiclric  .-vrleni. 


THE     VALDE  MARS  89 

1227-1241 

timely  aid  of  a  German  kniglit,  who  having  been  in  Valclemar's 
service  in  former  years,  forgot  the  hostihty  of  the  moment  and  con- 
veyed his  old  master  helpless  and  bleeding  to  Kiel,  there  attended 
his  wounds,  and  sent  him  on  to  his  country  palace  at  Vordingborg 
in  Sjaelland.  By  the  peace  that  succeeded  the  battle  at  Born- 
hoved,  Ltibeck  and  the  Hanse  towns  were  formally  accorded  the 
autonomy  which  they  had  already  usurped  at  the  time  of  Valde- 
mar's  captivity. 

The  remaining  fourteen  years  of  Valdemar's  reign  were  de- 
voted to  the  cares  of  government,  of  the  preparation  of  a  Jordebog 
or  book  of  lands  akin  to  the  Doomsday  book  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, and  to  the  preparation  of  several  codes  of  laws  for  the 
various  provinces  of  the  kingdom.  "  This  statistical  document 
(Librum  Census  Danicc),  the  greater  part  of  which  is  still  pre- 
served, throws  much  light  on  the  internal  economy  of  that  country 
during  the  thirteenth  century.  The  different  provinces  were 
divided  into  episcopal  dioceses,  amounting  to  eight  in  number;  and 
these  were  again  subdivided  into  parishes  for  ecclesiastical  purposes, 
and  small  districts,  each  of  which  was  to  furnish  a  vessel  and  a  cer- 
tain proportion  of  men  for  the  defense  of  the  kingdom,  and  the 
equipment  of  expeditions  against  the  pirates  or  other  public  enemies. 
North  Jutland  comprehended  the  bishoprics  of  Ribe,  Aarhus,  Vi- 
borg,  and  Borglum,  which  together  furnished  450  ships.  South 
Jutland,  or  Slesvig,  supplied  an  equal  number,  and  was  divided  into 
130  Styreshavne,  or  maritime  districts.  Fyen,  with  the  smaller 
adjacent  isles,  Laaland  and  Langeland,  constituted  the  diocese  of 
Odense,'and  were  rated  at  100  sail.  The  see  of  Roeskikle,  compris- 
ing Sjaelland,  with  the  islands  of  Aloen,  Falster,  and  Rygen,  con- 
tributed 120  vessels;  Skaania,  Halland,  and  Bleking  furnished  150, 
and  were  subject  to  the  Archbishop  of  Lund,  whose  jurisdiction 
extended  also  to  Bornholm,  Esthonia,  and  the  other  Danish  pos- 
sessions on  these  coasts,"  2 

In  1 24 1  Valdemar  laid  the  Jutish  code  before  the  Thing  of 
Jutland,  which  met  at  Viborg,  and  before  the  Sjaelland  Thing 
at  Vordingborg.  These  laws,  wliich  had  been  revised  by  the  learned 
Bishop  Gunner,  were  soon  extended  to  Slesvig  and  to  l\vcn,  and 
having  thus  taken  on  something  of  the  cliar.'ictcr  of  :\  national  code 
were  continued  in  force  for  nearly  .{■^o  yars,  until  (^n-istian  V.,  in 
1687,  performed  a  genera!  rrN'ision  of  Danish  law,  and  evcMi  then 
not  all  the  provisions  of  V'aldenKir's  famous  code  were  set  aside. 
-  Crichton   and   Whcaton :    "  Scandinavia,"   vol.    1.   p.    260. 


OO  SCANDINAVIA 

1241 

As  ill  more  ancient  times,  the  peo])le  continued  to  decide  their  (hs- 
piites  hv  reference  to  juries  of  whicli  there  seemed  to  liave  been 
several  \arietics:  one  consistini;"  of  "eight  good  men  and  true" 
cliosen  by  tlie  king  and  another  of  tweh'e  jurors  ch(3sen  by  the 
community  wlio  were  bouiid  to  tender  an  oatli  to  the  royal  bailiff 
that  thev  would  determine  the  matters  referred  to  them  in  accord- 
ance \vith  "  that  ^\■hich  was  most  right  cind  most  true."  .Ml  evidence 
offered  before  these  juries  was  direct,  the  complainant  supporting 
his  accusation  by  his  own  oath  and  tliat  of  his  compurgators, 
the  defendant  clearing  himself  if  he  was  able  1)y  direct  counter- 
charges likewise  supported  by  compurgators.  The  ordeal  of  battle 
h;i(l  long  since  1)een  abolished  as  we  have  already  seen:  the  ordeal 
of  reddiot  ircjii  was  now  done  away  with.  Besides  the  popular 
juries,  the  king's  bailiff,  as  already  indicated,  had  a  part  in  the  dis- 
])ensing  of  justice.  His  principal  function  was.  however,  to  see 
that  the  judgments  of  the  juries  were  carried  out,  to  preserve  order, 
to  receix'c  oaths,  and  to  make  all  preliminary  arrrmgements  for  the 
assembly  of  tlie  Thing  which  met  in  the  oiien  air  within  a  s])ace 
enclosed  wiihin  li  ring  of  stones — a  sheriff  in  short.  The  laws  were 
lenient  and  most  crimes  could  still  be  atoned  for  by  money  pay- 
ments, a  portion  of  which  went  to  the  disadvantaged  party  and  a 
portion  to  the  king's  bailifT. 

d'hrce  days  after  the  Jutish  laws  v.ere  read  and  approved  by 
the  Thing  of  \'ordingborg,  Valdemar  died  at  the  age  of  se\'entv-(v.ie. 
iiis  memory  has  always  been  especially  cherished  b\'  the  Danes, 
who  rightly  regard  him  as  the  greatest  of  their  conquerors  p.nd  his 
era  tlie  iuo.->t  glorious  of  their  liistory.  ]]oth  in  his  own  time,  and  in 
tlie  periofl  immediateK'  succeeding  his  death,  Valdemar  was  looked 
u])on  as  tlie  perfect  model  of  a  noble  knight  and  a  roval  hero.  To 
the  [)rowe<s  of  his  early  conriuicsts  his  subsequent  miseries  and 
humiliation^  conferred  something  of  the  glamor  of  luartyrdom. 

In  the  course  of  his  reign  Valdemar  had  two  <jueens.  ddie 
fn--t  u:i>  Margrele  of  IjoluMuia,  whom  the  Dan.es  in  their  fond 
admiraiM.n  of  her  gentleness  and  beauty  called  Dagnicir,  or  the 
maiden  i-l  llie  da}-.  Tlie  S(x'ond  Av.as  r.erangaria,  daughter  of  King 
I^,''.]iclio  \.  ot  I'ortu'.al.  Dagmar  long  continued  to  be  a  sjjeci.'d 
ta\-oni'-  \'.  i;h  the  iidiiilc  of  I  )enmark-,  and  the  fame  of  her  \'irtues 
\'va^-  I-;(]>t  ;ilu('  in  uvmiv  of  the  mo--t  p()])ular  of  the  /;(/r/;//'('T7'.s<'/-, 
when-  '.■.(■  Iiiid  her  rr]irrseiitcd  as  a  f;iir,  fi'agile,  golden-haired  prin- 
ce-'^, LM'i'l'e  rmd   pure  as  a  saint.     According  to  one  of  these  old 


THEVALDEMARS  91 

1202-1241 

ballads,  as  she  lay  on  her  death  bed,  and  her  chaplain  urged  her 
to  confess,  she  could  think  of  no  sin  but  that  of  having  decked 
herself  in  her  best  new  bodice  and  plaited  her  long  hair  with  bright 
ribbons  before  she  went  to  mass.  The  tall,  black-haired  Berangaria, 
on  the  other  hand,  excited  the  greatest  antipathy  among  her  sub- 
jects, who  translated  her  name  into  Bcngjocrd — a  vile  woman. 
The  superstitious  peasants  even  believed  that  fierce  cries  of 
rage  and  terror  might  be  heard  from  her  tomb  in  Ringsted  abbey 
by  those  who  passed  near  it  at  midnight,  while  at  the  same  moment 
softest  strains  of  heavenly  music  floated  over  the  neighboring  grave 
of  Dagmar.  Dagmar  left  no  descendants.  Her  son  Valdemar, 
who  had  shared  his  father's  captivity  at  Danneberg,  and  who  had 
been  crowned  joint  king  with  him  when  but  six  years  old  to  secure 
the  succession,  died  in  1231  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  from  the 
wounds  received  while  hunting.  Shortly  before  this  the  prince's 
wife  and  son  had  been  carried  off  by  some  sudden  ailment,  or  pos- 
sibly by  poisoning.  At  any  rate,  by  these  two  untoward  events, 
Berangaria's  three  sons,  Erik,  Abel,  and  Christopher,  were  brought 
successively  to  the  Danish  throne.  Their  reigns  and  those  of  their 
immediate  successors  constitute  a  century  of  humiliation  for  Den- 
mark that  stands  in  pathetic  contrast  with  the  brilliant  era  of  the 
two  Valdemars.  The  monarchy  is  gradually  stripped  of  its  domain 
and  for  a  time  seems  threatened  with  extinction ;  the  nation  loses 
its  independence,  the  people  their  freedom,  while  the  bold  spirit 
that  once  distinguished  them  is  departed. 

Valdemar's  excessive  fondness  for  his  children  and  a  totally 
wrong  conception  of  the  character  of  the  royal  power  lie  at  the 
basis  of  the  terrible  disasters  which  followed  quickly  upon  his 
death.  In  order  to  make  provision  for  his  younger  sons,  he  had 
given  Slesvig  to.  Abel  and  Laaland  and  Falster  to  Christopher, 
while  Bleking  and  Halland  he  had  bestowed  upon  his  grandson, 
Nikolaus.  When,  therefore,  Erik  became  king,  he  found  that  little 
more  than  the  title  of  royalty  was  left  him ;  for  his  brothers,  on  the 
plea  that  their  father  had  given  them  full  sovereignty  over  their 
respective  lands,  refused  to  do  even  feudal  homage  to  the  crown. 
The  disputes  which  ensued  when  Erik  tried  to  enforce  his  rights 
speedily  plunged  the  land  into  civil  war  to  the  cost,  of  course,  of  the 
lives  and  property  of  tlie  ]ieasantry  ^vho  needed  most  of  all 
peace  and  the  ()])p(')rtunity  to  till  their  fields.  Besides  his  troubles 
with  his  brothers,  L'Jik  had  numerous  controversies  with  the  counts 


92  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  Y  I  A 

1241-1259 

of  Holstein,  the  Swedes,  Liibeck,  and  the  clergy,  and  by  levying 
a  tax  npon  plows  lo  meet  the  extra  expenses  of  an  expedition  into 
Esthonia  he  totally  alienated  the  peasantry,  who  branded  him,  with 
hatred  and  derision,  PloN'peng. 

]u"ik's  not  very  promising  career  was  cut  short  by  assassina- 
tion at  the  instigation  of  his  brother  Abel.  Learning  that  the  death 
of  th.e  king  had  been  accomplished  by  his  outlaw  minions,  Abel 
immediately  sent  off  to  the  Danish  Islands  to  offer  himself  to  the 
people  as  their  king.  At  the  same  time  he  took  a  solemn  oath  be- 
fore the  Thing  that  he  was  guiltless  of  his  brother's  sudden  taking 
off,  and  brought  forward  twenty-four  nobles  to  swear  to  the  truth 
of  his  word  according  to  the  ancient  practice  of  compurgation. 
Compurgation,  hov^'ever,  and  perjury  did  not  deceive  the  nation, 
yet  for  the  sake  of  the  memory  of  Valdemar  Sejr  the  Danes  would 
not  withhold  the  crown  from  his  eldest  living  son.  Accordingly, 
in  1250,  Abel  assumed  the  crown.  He  ruled  but  two  years — with 
benefit  to  his  realm,  it  must  be  admitted — when  he  himself  w-as  as- 
sassinated on  the  occasion  of  his  retreat  from  an  unsuccessful  cam- 
paign against  the  Ditmarshers,  who  of  late  years  had  become 
very  unruly. 

By  a  strange  coincidence,  almost  at  the  very  same  time  that 
Abel  was  murdered  and  Ins  dead  body  left  without  burial  in  the 
Frisian  marshes,  the  headless  trunk  of  Erik  was  brought  to  the 
surface  of  the  Slie  by  the  shifting  of  the  current,  and  the  manner 
of  his  death  became  known  be)-ond  contradiction.  The  monks  of 
Slesvig  al)l)cy,  who  were  the  first  to  discover  the  body  and  recog- 
nize it  as  that  of  the  late  king,  buried  the  remains  near  the  spot 
w  here  tliey  had  been  cast  up.  Soon  a  rejjort  was  spread  abroad  that 
miracles  were  being  Avrought  and  marvelous  cures  being  effected 
at  h>ik"s  tomb  and  for  many  decades  the  abbey  derived  large  reve- 
inies  fr(jm  tlie  ])ilgrims  who  Hocked  thither. 

'J"he  \-iok'nt  deatlis  of  hj'ik  and  .Abel  discloses  to  a  degree  the 
dcch"nc  into  which  the  Danisli  monarchy  had  sunk.  It  is,  however, 
in  the  reign  of  their  brother  and  successor,  C"lna'sto])her,  which 
lasted  from  i_'5-2  till  1259,  that  the  various  causes  o])erating  to  the 
subversion  of  tlic-  rov'al  power  and  the  decay  of  Danish  su[)remacy 
in  the  noiali  Itccoiiic  resealed  in  all  their  dimensions. 

I'oi-ciHM^t  I  if  ilie^e  tauses  was  the  discjrganization  of  the  royal 
power  ii-flf,  wliicli  had  begun  in  the  twelfth  century  with  the 
practice  lollowed  by  various  nionarchs  of  dividing  the  realm  among 


THEVALDEiVIARS  93 

1252-1259 

their  sons.  Civil  war  inevitably  resulted  from  these  partitionings, 
the  princely  appanages  invariably  attempting  to  transform  them- 
selves into  personal  and  hereditary  fiefs.  iVt  the  same  time  the 
hereditary  descent  of  the  crown  from  father  to  eldest  son  had  never 
been  secured.  Some  kings,  for  instance  Valdemar  Sejr,  had  at- 
tempted to  insure  the  succession  to  their  sons  by  having  the  latter 
crowned  in  advance,  but  these  arrangements  were  generally 
thwarted  by  ambitious  uncles  or  brothers.  The  crown  thus  never 
lost  its  elective  character  and  since  the  days  of  Svend  Estridsen  and 
Bishop  Absalon,  when  the  peasantry's  share  in  choosing  a  monarch 
became  negligible,  the  election  had  been  by  the  nobility.  The  natu- 
ral consequences  of  this  arrangement  became  speedily  evident,  for 
though  the  choice  must  still  be  made  from  the  royal  family,  yet 
competitors  were  usually  numerous,  and  that  one  of  the  eligible 
rivals  would  be  chosen  therefore  who  was  ready  and  willing  to 
make  the  most  liberal  concessions  to  the  electors.  Christopher 
himself  was  chosen  over  the  heads  of  Abel's  several  sons. 

The  power  of  the  clergy  was  increasing  step  by  step  with  that 
of  the  nobility.  Liberally  endowed  by  the  early  Estridsens,  the 
bishops  had  their  own  castles,  courts,  and  vassals,  and  exercised 
without  let  or  hindrance  the  rights  of  coinage  and  other  regalian 
powers.  Thus  the  Archbishop  of  Lund  had  thirty-six  fiefs  at  his 
disposal,  including  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  Island  of  Bornholm, 
and  the  Bishop  of  Roeskilde  controlled  forty-three  fiefs.  These 
extensive  domains  began  in  the  early  days  of  Erik  Plovpeng  to  set 
up  the  pretense  that  they  were  exempt  from  the  royal  impost.  The 
dispute  thus  created  between  the  king  and  his  clergy  became  open 
warfare  in  Christopher's  reign  with  all  the  episodes  typical  of  that 
species  of  strife. 

In  Erik  I'lovpeng's  reign,  as  we  have  seen,  the  city  of  Liibeck, 
situated  on  the  German  coast  of  the  Baltic,  was  able  to  sustain  an 
annoying  contest  with  its  alleged  suzerain,  the  King  of  Denmark. 
Liibeck  was,  however,  but  one  of  a  number  of  flourishing  commer- 
cial cities  that  had  come  to  occupy  the  former  places  of  ambush  of 
the  Wendish  pirates,  as  these  blood-letting  personages  had  been 
converted  to  a  more  civilized  way  of  life  and  had  become  correct 
Christian  merchants.  After  the  battle  of  Bornhoved  some  of  these 
cities,  like  Dantzig,  founded  by  Valdemar  I.,  and  Stettin,  had  been 
lost  to  the  empire.  Others,  including  Liibeck,  had  continued  to 
pay  a  nominal  homage  to  the  Danish  monarch,  but  to  them  also  had 


^H  S  C  A  X  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1259 

been  accorded  a  generous  measure  of  aiitonoiny.  Thus  their  burgher 
classes  were  permitted  as  a  distinct  body  of  the  state  to  send  repre- 
.-entaii\cs  to  the  (h"et,  and  in  the  way  of  local  liberties  to  have  their 
own  courts  of  justice  and  to  settle  their  affairs  in  civic  or  town 
councils  ])resided  over  by  a  mayor  or  burgomaster,  although  every 
town  still  h.ad  its  royal  bailiff,  vested  with  certain  judicial  powers 
and  with  the  duty  of  collecting  certain  dues  for  the  cruwn.  This 
grant,  the  work  of  Valclemar  II..  being  t)f  a  political  order,  was 
without  particular,  at  least  detrimental,  effect  upon  Denmark 
proper.  Certain  conxessions  extorted  from  Christopher  by  the 
men  ui  Liibeck,  and  afterv\-ar(l  extended  to  the  other  Hanseatic 
towns  without  regard  to  their  political  allegiance,  were,  on  the 
other  hand,  of  commercial  import  and  of  very  serious  consequence. 
Thus  the  exemption  of  the  Hanseatic  merchants  from  the  Sound 
tulls  not  only  diminished  the  royal  revenues,  but,  taken  together 
with  tlie  cltjser  communion  of  the  German  cities  with  southern 
I'^urope  and  the  Mediterranean  traffic,  gave  those  cities  a  monopoly 
o'f  th.e  commerce  of  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas,  and  blighted  for 
centuries  the  commerce  of  the  Danish  towns.  Likewise,  the  con- 
cession t(j  Cerr.ian  fishermen  of  the  privilege  of  pursuing  herring 
from  ilicir  {'(nncranian  beds  into  Danish  waters  seritjusly  injured 
the  Dani-h  fisliing  industry. 

'J'lie  situation  in  Denmark  at  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury may  be  summed  u])  thus:  a  jieasantry  declining  into  serfage; 
a  [)aini"ull}-  dexeloping  ijiu'gher  class;  a  ])owerful  territorial  nobility 
rapidl}-  (le\-e]o])ing  out  of  thic  old  system  of  local  magnates;  an 
ecclc>i;i.-tical  ord.er.  rdso  wielding  great  territorial  ])o\vers.  slowly 
abandoning  its  alliance  with  the  monarchy  and  casting  in  its  lot 
with  the  lay  ni.icj'nates,  against  wliose  aggrcs.sions  the  monarchy  is 
no  longer  .:i  ca]);;b1c  defender.  In  short,  a  feudal  and  sacerdotal 
oligarchy  i.<  superseding  the  Dani-h  monarchy,  which  indeed  was 
al\\a\-  a  ir;,:I  craft  U])on  a  wild  sea  of  ana.rch}'.  Cjjncomitant  with 
tli!>  '.hange  is  a  transformation  in  the  character  of  ihe  instru- 
niiniaiuir-  of  government.  Th.e  old  local  Things,  tliough  from 
tinn-  to  time  ]]i('y  .-;ill  ,-i--crt  them-el\e-,  hax'e  ^ieidefl  in  large  part  to 
ilic;  diet,  Adclinii;,  or  l)anneliof.  which  a.>>nines  moi-e  ar,d  more  the 
ri.uhi  to  Iniiii  ii:(_-  royal  iii''l!:ili\c-.  rmd  in  which,  ihough  the  higher 
pea-ant  ;\  m-ii!  ri.-;  irt  .-c'ntati\es  to  it  as  late  as  the  lifteenth  century, 
the  jMrlate.-  and  .^I'eai  i..blfs  ])rej)< nxlcrate.  Of  the  s;inic  essential 
cLaracier  \,a~  tl.c  more  compact  council  of  btate,  though  this  body 


T  H  E     V  A  L  D  E  :\r  A  R  S  95 

1259-1283 

a  strong  monarch  conld  hope  to  sway.  Such,  unfortunately  for 
Denmark,  were  few  and  far  between. 

It  was  also  in  Cln-istopher's  reign  that  the  series  of  Slesvig- 
Holstein  wars  began,  which  were  to  continue  600  years.  South 
Jutland,  or  Slesvig,  had  always  been  a  portion  of  Denmark,  h.ad 
tlie  same  constitution,  same  laws,  same  customs:  for  it  was  onlv 
relatively  late  that  German  colonists  entered  it,  and  then  tliev  re- 
mained in  the  southern  part.  Howe-\-er,  tlie  practice  of  partitioning 
the  kingdom  among  the  sons  of  the  reigning  monarch  was  especially 
perilous  when  applied  to  Slesvig  on  account  of  the  proximity  of  the 
Holstein  princes.  This  was  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  first  act  of 
these  princes  upon  Christoplier's  accession  was  to  insist  that  he 
should  confirm  to  his  and  tlieir  young  nephews  all  the  rights  over 
the  duchy  of  Slesvig  which  Abel  had  claimed  in  Eric's  lifetime  as 
due  to  him  in  accordance  with  the  intentions  of  Yaldemar  Sejr.  The 
conditions  amounted  practically  to  a  demand  that  the  independence 
of  the  duchy  be  recognized.  Christopher  refused,  whereupon  the 
Holsteiners  made  war  on  Denmark.  After  much  fighting  King 
Abel's  son,  Valdemar  of  Slesvig,  was  allowed  to  hold  the  duchy, 
but  on  what  terms  both  parties  purposely  left  to  be  settled  at  some 
other  time. 

In  the  following  reign  the  young  king,  being  imprisoned  to- 
gether with  his  mother,  th.e  queen-regent,  by  Erik,  Valdemar  of 
Slesvig's  son,  made  an  explicit  pledge  to  recognize  his  captor's 
hereditary  right  to  the  ducliy.  Subsequently  escaping,  however, 
he  claimed  immunity  from  the  promise  made  under  duress.  Im- 
mediately he  was  haled  before  tlie  imperial  court  at  Ratisbon,  b}' 
whose  decision  in  1283  Duke  Erik's  heir.  Valdemar.  was  formally 
put  in  possessioui  of  Slesvig  as  a  vassal  of  th.e  empire,  and  not  till 
one  hundred  and  sixty  years  later  did  tlie  Danish  monarch  recover 
the  duch}-. 

Christopher  ended  his  reign  isi  a  struggle  with  Jakob  Erland- 
sen,  the  primate,  ^i  man  of  great  learning,  v/ho  had  been  a  fellow- 
student  at  Rome  of  the  Pope,  Innocent  I\\,  and  so  devoted  to  the 
Roman  Church  that  lie  considered  his  duty  as  a  subject  np.uch 
less  binding  upon  his  conscience  than  liis  oljligations  as  one  oi  tlie 
clergy.  Christoplier  Lhrcalened  to  c;ill  the  clergy  to  account  for 
their  exercise  of  scignorial  rights  rmd  their  defirmco  of  the  royal 
ordinances.  I'n-l.andsen,  in  rc.-]^on>e,  dcckired  that  nn.E'^.  the  l-:ing 
ceased    his   attemjjts   to   curtail   the    ])ri\  ileges    of   the   clerg}-,    t'^c 


96  SCANDINAVIA 

1259-1286 

kingdom  should  be  laid  under  an  interdict.  This  so  enraged 
Christopher  that  he  caused  the  primate  to  be  seized  in  his  own 
palace  and  carried,  chained  like  a  common  felon,  to  one  of  the 
royal  castles,  an  act  which,  as  might  have  been  expected,  brought 
down  the  wrath  of  Rome  upon  the  entire  kingdom.  Denmark  was 
laid  under  interdict  and  a  sentence  of  excommunication  passed  upon 
the  king  and  all  who  had  taken  part  in  the  seizure  and  ill-treatment 
of  the  primate. 

The  people,  however,  at  first  paid  little  heed  to  these  acts  and 
as  the  clergy  in  Jutland  and  some  of  the  islands  refused  obedience 
to  the  Papal  decrees,  the  services  of  the  church  were  still  carried  on 
in  many  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Christopher,  emboldened  by  his 
success  thus  far,  now  determined  to  seize  upon  some  of  the  crown 
lands  held  by  the  bishops,  a  resolution  wdiich  was  thwarted  only 
by  his  sudden  death  while  he  was  receiving  the  communion  in  the 
catliedral  of  Ribe.  Immediately  the  tale  became  current  among 
the  people  that  the  king  had  died  from  the  effects  of  a  poisoned 
wafer  given  him  by  Arnfast,  and  when  Arnfast  was  subserincntly 
elevated  to  the  see  of  Aarhus  the  uncanny  suspicion  was  not  allayed. 

Christopher  was  succeeded  by  his  ten-year-old  scjn,  Erik  Clip- 
ping the  "  Blinker,"  the  queen,  Margaret  of  Pomerania.  acting  as 
regent.  Almost  her  first  act  was  to  release  the  primate  from  his 
captivity.  Erlandsen  refused,  however,  to  be  reconciled  with  the 
royal  family,  but  liastened  to  Rome  to  lay  his  case  before  Po])e 
Alexander  IV^  In  1273  Erik  consented  to  be  mulcted  of  15,000 
silver  marks,  whereupon  the  interdict  was  removed,  after  having 
')cen  nominally  in  force  fourteen  years. 


Chapter    IX 

NORWAY  AND   SWEDEN   BEFORE  THE   UNION   OF 
CALMAR.     1093-1397 

O LAP'S  son  and  successor,  Magnus  Barfod,  who  became 
king  in  1093,  greatly  resembled  his  grandfather  in  char- 
acter and  proclivities.  He  was  speedily  involved  in  a 
quarrel  with  the  Swedish  monarch  regarding  the  boundary  line 
of  the  two  realms.  The  war  that  followed  was  brought  to  an  end 
in  iioi  by  Alagnus's  marriage  to  the  Swedish  princess,  Margrete, 
who,  on  that  account,  became  known  as  Fred  Kulla,  or  the  "  peace 
maiden."  Alagnus  now  turned  his  arms  against  the  western  islands 
and  Scotland,  and,  after  forcing  the  natives  of  those  places  to  pay 
him  tribute,  against  the  Isle  of  Alan  and  Anglesea,  both  of  which 
he  also  subdued.  His  final  enterprise  was  directed  against  Ireland. 
Having  ventured  too  far  inland  with  a  small  following  he  was 
cut  off  from  his  ships  by  a  band  of  Irish  peasants  and  he  and 
all  his  men  were  slain  (1103).  It  is  said  that  Magnus  was  given 
his  nickname  because  of  his  adoption  of  the  Scottish  kilt,  which 
excited  the  ridicule  of  his  subjects.  Alagnus,  undisturbed  however, 
kept  to  the  Highland  dress  to  the  end  of  his  days. 

]\Iagnus's  three  sons,  Ejsten,  Sigurd,  and  Olaf  were  chosen 
joint  kings  to  succeed  their  father.  Sigurd  presently  set  out  for 
the  Holy  Land  with  a  large  fleet,  which  he  turned  against  the 
pirates  of  the  Mediterranean.  Subsequently  making  his  way  to  Jeru- 
salem, he  assisted  in  the  capture  of  Sidon  from  the  infidels.  On  his 
return  he  visited  the  Emperor  Alexius  at  Constantinople,  to  whom 
on  his  departure  overland  for  Norway  he  presented  his  fleet. 
Sigurd  Jorsalafari  returned  to  rule,  for  Olaf  was  now  dead  and 
Ejsten  a  negligible  quantity.  Pie  did  all  he  could  to  exalt  the 
power  of  the  clergy  and  to  introduce  the  liturgy  of  southern 
Europe.  He  was  also  something  of  a  legal  reformer,  abolishing 
many  of  the  ancient  forms  of  law  and  ordering  that  preference 
should  be  given  to  the  ordeal  of  red-hot  iron  in  the  decision  of 
doubtful  cases.  This  jjractice  turned  out  bad)}-  for  Sigurd  himself, 
for  it  happened  that  toward  the  close  of  his  life  a  claimant  to  the 

97 


98  S  C  A  X  D  I  N  A  y  I  A 

1093-1262 

throne  appeared  from  Ireland  and  demanded  diat  the  trnth  oi  liis 
claim,  which  was  that  he  was  the  son  of  ^Magnus  Barfod,  should  be 
su1)iectcd  to  the  test  which  Sigurd  had  prescribed.  The  king 
ga\-e  hi-  consent,  because  he  could  not  very  well  do  otherwise, 
.and  when  the  impostor,  who  called  himself  Harald  Gille,  went 
through  tiie  ordeal  successfully,  loyally  owned  him  as  brother  and 
associate. 

Shortly  afterward  Sigurd  died,  leaving  Harald  Gille  and  his 
own  son,  Magnus,  joint  rulers.  TliC  former  blinded  the  latter 
and  next  year  was  himself  strangled  in  his  l)ed  at  Bergen  by  a 
second  Sigurd,  who  also  claimed  to  be  a  son  of  Alagnus  Barfod. 
The  new  imp(^stor.  however,  contented  himself  with  tlie  modest 
role  of  king-maker,  and  taking  the  blinded  king,  Magnus,  from 
the  ])rison  into  which  he  had  been  thrust,  set  him  on  the  throne, 
Ir.it  shfjrtly  afterward  botli  Sigurd  and  Magnus  were  slain  in  battle 
with  fL'u-ald  Gille's  adherents.  A  great  many  factions  now  sprang 
v/)  in  the  rniarchy-rid;len  country.  The  two  most  important  were 
tiie  Jjirkc-bciicnic,  or  "  Birchlegs,"  from  their  birchbark  sandals, 
(;r  leggings,  and  the  1'ai.^'ciiic,  or  "  Croziers,"  from  the  bagall  or 
crozicr.  (>i  the  founder  of  the  party.  Xicholaus,  Bishojj  of  Oslo. 

d^lie  leader  of  the  Birchlegs  was  at  first  a  certain  Sverre,  the 
son  of  a  l)rushmal-;er  of  Drontheim,  who  had  recci\'ed  some  in- 
struction to  the  en.d  of  beccmiing  a  priest,  hie  gave  himself  out  to 
he  a  ^on  of  tlie  first  Sigurd,  anrl  In's  successes  against  the  numerous 
(■•aim.-mts  to  tiic  tlirone  were  so  considerable  that  in  the  year  i  184 
he  was  crowr,cd  at  Ikrgcn  amid  the  acclamation  f)f  the  peo])le. 
ihu  tlie  hil!  of  party  strife  was  very  brief  and  in  1202  Sverre  died. 
\'."oi-n  oi;t  ]jy  coi-i-tant  warfare  with  the  clerical  faction,  which  was 
lie-'i'Ied  1)\-  tlie  .\rchl)i>]ioji  of  Drontheim  and  could  always  ctjunt  on 
aid  iro'ii  I)cnm;trk.  or  at  least  on  a  safe  retreat  tlniher.  Sverre's 
.■~^»n,  [lal;nn  III.,  reigned  but  two  }-ears.  Tlis  sudden  death  at 
l'(Tgin  in  1204  IS  generallv  attributed  to  poison  mixed  by  his 
-'''1  'iiothcr.  .\;;ngaret,  drmglUer  of  .Saint  \\v\k  of  Sweden.  X"ever- 
theic--;,  'Ih'  llirciih'g^  '-tih  seemed  to  ha\-c  controlled  the  succession. 
Gntt'.rni.  a  ^.OTiul-ori  oi"  S\erre.  held  the  thnuie  a  few  months. 
I-  i''J-i  hi-;  (jcatli  the  crown  went  to  Inge  llaardsen,  a  ne])]iew  of  the 
"■-'I"'  !!!■  iiiairh.  \\li.o  cfiiiU'iided  for  thii"teen  years  with  varying  suc- 
<■'•-■  •',  i;h  ior.r  or  i'wc  riwil-;.  liis  su.cc-e->;or  was  llak-on  lY.,  who 
-'  •■'^'■'  '■''<•  \'-;i-  r<-pic-(;itcd  hv  the  Ihrcliiegs  as  a  son  of  JLakon  II F. 

In  ti/c  l',]ig  re;  on  >'\    I  lahon   IV\,   frdui    IJ17  lo   J  j6j,  Norway 


BEFORE     THE     UNION  99 

1217-1262 

emerged  for  the  morxient  into  something  hke  Eriropean  prominence. 
In  his  youth  Hakon  brought  low  one  enemy  after  another,  ending 
with  Skule  Baardsson,  his  father-in-law,  whom  h.e  had  made  ruler 
of  a  third  of  his  kingdom  with  the  title  of  "  Jarl  of  Xorwav," 
but  who  soon  came  to  aim  at  nothing  short  of  the  roval  power. 
In  1240  Skule  caused  liimself  to  be  proclaimed  king  and  advanced 
upon  Drontheim  at  the  head  of  liis  partisans,  among  \v"l]om  lie 
could  reckon  many  of  the  great  magnates  of  the  realm.  Tlie  rebel 
army  was  completely  defeated  by  Hakon  at  Oslo,  and  Skule  himself 
was  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  a  monastery,  within  whose  walls  he 
was  shortly  after  murdered. 

Norway  now  enjoyed  a  greater  degree  of  peace  than  it  had 
experienced  for  a  century  before.  Hakon  displayed  great  ability 
in  restoring  order  to  his  kingdom  and  his  fame  for  valor  and  piety 
became  European.  Thus  Louis  IX.  of  France  sent  a  special  em- 
bassy to  Norway  to  solicit  Hakon's  aid  in  a  crusade,  and  the  Pope 
urged  him  to  take  arms  against  the  Emperor  Frederick  XL  Hakon 
tactfully  and  sensibly  refused  to  give  ear  to  either  project.  Fie 
had,  in  fact,  objects  of  ambition  much  nearer  home. 

Tlie  inhabitants  of  Iceland  had  enjoyed  independence  since  the 
days  of  their  initial  settlement  in  the  time  of  Harald  Haarfager. 
They  enjo}'e(l  the  sway  of  a  system  of  laws  Avith  many  features 
of  exceptional  humanity,  but  unfortunately  among  the  great  families 
of  the  island  immemorial  antagonisms  subsisted  v/hich  kept  the  en.- 
tire  populace  involved  in  incessant  and  destructive  warfare.  Espe- 
cially ambitious  was  the  powerful  family  of  the  Sturles,  the  chief 
representative  of  whom  at  this  moment  was  Snorre  Sturleson. 
Snorre  had,  as  head  of  public  affairs  in  Iceland,  raised  up  a  host 
of  enemies  by  what  was  alleged  to  be  his  arrogant  conduct.  It 
happened,  therefore,  that  Ilaktin.  aware  of  his  opportunity,  de- 
termined to  conquer  Icekmd.  He  of  course  found  no  trouble  in 
inciting  the  Icelanders  to  re\olt  against  their  own  chieftain.  Long 
years  of  warfare  ensued,  but  a.t  I'lst  in  1241,  Snorre  having  Ijeeri 
murdered  by  his  sf)n-in-law,  all  Iceland  was  brought  completely 
under  the  control  of  Norway.  The  subjugatioii  of  Greenland 
shortly  followed. 

Toward  the  close  of  his  reign  Hakon  invaded  Scotland  witli 
a  powerful  fleet,  intending  to  recover  the  l;;nds  which  the  X')r- 
wegians  had  once  held  ni  that  regum.  It  is  (|uite  imjjossible  lo 
harmonize  the  divergent   accounts  given   of  this   event   by   Scoicii 


100  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1262-1387 

and  Xorwegian  chroniclers.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  beyond  dis- 
pute that  King  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland  surprised  the  Norwegians 
while  they  were  conducting  a  landing  on  the  coast  of  Ayr,  and  in  a 
battle  fought  at  Largs  about  1261  so  thoroughly  defeated  them 
that  the  small  remnant  of  invaders  was  glad  to  take  ship  for  the 
Orkneys.  Here  Hakon  was  seized  with  an  illness  of  which  he  died 
in  the  spring  of  the  year  1262  at  Kirkwall.  His  son,  ]\Iagnus,  who 
had  married  a  daughter  of  Alexander  III.,  sold  the  Hebrides, 
according  to  the  Norwegian  account,  to  his  royal  father-in-law  for 
a  large  sum  of  money.  The  Scotch  rendition  of  the  affair  is  that 
Magnus  was  forced  to  renounce  all  claims  to  the  islands  without 
any  compensation  whatever.  Besides  his  title  to  fame  as  a  con- 
queror. ]\Iagnus  left  behind  the  honorable  name  of  Lagabaeter.  or 
Law-betterer,  in  recognition  of  his  collection  and  codification  of 
the  valuable  portion  of  the  old  customary  law. 

lirik,  known  as  Praesthader  or  Priest-hater,  ruled  from  1280 
to  1299.  His  epithet  tells  the  story.  He  did  not,  in  the  least,  suc- 
ceed in  winning  the  love  of  his  monkish  chroniclers,  being  indis- 
posed to  admit  the  right  that  the  clergy  claimed  to  immunity  from 
taxation.  He  was,  moreover,  almost  incessanth'  at  war  with  the 
Danes  on  account  of  his  mother.  Queen  Ingeborg's  dowry,  which 
harl  never  been  paid.  He  also  had  an  interminable  cpiarrcl  with 
the  Scotch  on  account  of  the  heritage  of  his  daughter,  ]\Iargretc; 
also,  many  disputes  with  the  Hansers,  whose  trading  rights  he 
patriotically  tried  to  curtail.  ]\Iost  grievous  of  his  misfortunes  was 
a  personal  one,  namely  the  death  of  his  daughter,  Alargrete,  who 
died  at  sea  while  on  her  way  to  Scotland  to  lay  claim  to  tlie  tin-one 
on  the  death  of  her  grandfather,  Alexander  111.  In  the  absence 
f)f  male  issue  I'^rik  was  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  I2()9  by  his 
brcjthcr,  Hakon,  with  the  title  of  Hakon  V.  Upon  tliis  ruler's 
death  in  1319  the  infant  Magnus  of  Sweden,  son  of  liakon's 
daughter  Ingeborg,  was  received  as  king  by  the  peo})]c  of  Norway. 
This  is  the  Magnus  Smek  of  Swedish  history.  In  1350  ]\lagnus 
resigned  the  X'orwcgian  throne  to  his  second  son,  llakon,  who  had 
married  Margaret  of  Denmark,  and  who  now  took  the  title  of 
Hakon  VT.  in  [375  ILakon's  son  Olaf,  then  but  five  years  of 
age,  was  clio-en  king  of  Denmark  under  the  regency  of  his  mother, 
Margaret.  r])on  liakon's  death  in  i3(So  the  same  arrangement 
was  accepted  l)y  the  ])e(j])le  of  Xorwav,  to  endure  till  Okif's  death 
■n  .'387.     Upon  the  death  in  1056  of  lulmund  Ganile,  the  last  of  the 


BEFORE     THE     UNION  101 

1056-1155 

Ynglingjar  whose  control  of  the  sacred  precincts  of  Upsala  con- 
stituted the  chief  title  of  the  kings  of  Svithjod  to  their  sway  over 
the  men  of  Gothland,  a  relentless  struggle  broke  out  between  the 
two  races.  In  the  decade  1056  to  1066  the  Gota  had  a  Christian 
king,  Stenkil,  who  seems  .to  have  held  sway  finally  over  both  the 
Svea  and  Gota,  pagans  and  Christians.  The  centur}^  that  followed 
his  demise  was,  however,  a  period  of  turmoil  and  carnage  to  which 
both  racial  antagonism  and  religious  animosity  contributed.  The 
cause  of  Christianity  was  barely  kept  alive  by  small  groups  of 
heroic  monks  who  ventured  to  come  up  from  Skaania  from  time 
to  time  to  found  churches,  which  were  generally  soon  burned 
down  by  the  heathen  reactionaries.  At  one  time,  indeed,  both 
Svea  and  Gota  obeyed  a  pagan  king,  and,  renouncing  Christianity, 
united  in  sacrifice  to  Odin.  At  another  time  there  was  no  king 
at  all,  the  chief  law-explainers  or  primitive  justiciars  ruling  each 
in  his  own  district. 

Sverker  Karlsson  was  a  Christian  king  and  in  his  period, 
1135-1155,  the  disorder  in  Sweden  began  to  diminish.  Sverker 
erected  churches  and  monasteries,  invited  Cistercian  monks  to  his 
realm,  and  even  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Pope,  praying  that  bishops 
might  be  settled  in  Sweden  and  that  a  place  might  be  chosen  for 
the  see  of  a  primate,  the  primacy  of  the  Danish  Arclibishop  of 
Lund  being  extremely  irksome  to  the  Swedes.  In  response,  the 
Pope  sent  Cardinal  Nicholaus  Albinensis,  later  Adrian  IV.,  the  first 
and  only  English  Pope,  to  Sweden  to  investigate  the  question  of 
an  archbishopric  for  that  country.  When,  however,  the  Svea  and 
the  Gota  were  unable  to  agree  upon  the  choice  of  a  district  for  the 
primate's  see,  the  best  that  the  Pope's  legate  could  do  was  to 
erect  the  Norwegian  bishopric  of  Dronthcim  into  a  metropolitanate 
and  to  assign  Sweden  to  its  jurisdiction.  The  Swedish  monarch 
in  return  guaranteed  the  payment  of  Peter's  pence  to  the  court 
of  Rome. 

Sverker's  old  age  was  troubled  by  civil  wars  in  which  his 
own  son  took  a  hostile  part  until  he  was  murdered  by  some  peasants 
whom  he  had  outraged.  Shortly  after  this  event  Sverker  himself 
was  assassinated  by  his  own  attendants,  on  tlie  plea  that  he  had 
shown  himself  incompetent  and  cowardly  in  dealing  with  the 
Danes,  who  were  now  assailing  the  Swedisli  coasts.  Erik  Jed- 
vardsson  was  the  choice  of  tlic  Svea  to  succeed  Sverker,  and,  tliough 
the  Gota  at  first  resisted  Erik's  autliorit}^,  they,  too,  were  finally 


102  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1150-1250 

induced,  partly  by  dint  of  diplomacy  and  partly  by  force,  to  ac- 
cept liim.  The  ancient  saga  tells  us  that  King  Erik  the  Saint  laid 
three  things  to  his  heart:  to  build  churches  and  to  improve  the 
services  of  religion,  to  rule  his  people  according  to  law  and  right, 
and  to  overjwwer  tlie  enemies  of  his  faith  and  realm.  Resides 
h.is  title  as  saint  Erik  has  also  the  epithet  "  the  la\v-p;iver."  and  as 
such  he  won  the  especial  love  and  gratitude  of  the  women  of 
Sweden  bv  his  n.umerous  laws  in  their  behalf.  Henceforth  every 
wife  might  claim  equal  power  with  her  husband  over  locks,  bolts, 
aiid  bars.  She  had  a  legal  claim  to  half  his  bed  during  his  life, 
win'ch  meant  that  she  could  not  be  ruthlessly  divorced.  Lastly,  she 
was  entitled  to  enjoy  one-third  of  his  substance  after  his  death. 

Till  Erik's  time  the  worship  of  Odin  had  continued  at  Upsala. 
Xow,  however,  a  primate's  see  arose  at  Gamla  Upsala  and  the 
learned  and  ])']()us  Menrik  was  appointed  its  lirst  incumbent.  Like 
the  great  Absalon  a  warrior  as  well  as  churcliman,  and  an  enthusi- 
astic missionary  in  l)oth  capacities.  Henrik  lost  his  life  on  a  crusade 
against  the  pagan  I'^inns.  Erik  hin":self  owed  his  death  to  an  inva- 
sion of  upper  Sweden  by  the  Danish  prince.  Magnus  LIen^ik^en. 
His  virtues  an.d  jjiety  secured  him  tlie  love  of  his  people,  who, 
though  he  v/as  never  canonized.  Vv'orshipcd  him  as  their  patron 
saint.  Eor  many  years  his  remains  were  preserved  in  the  cathedral  at 
Lpsala  and  honored  as  holy  relics,  his  arms  were  emblazoned  on 
the  nationrd  flag  of  Sweden,  and  the  figure  of  the  sainted  king 
still  appears  on  tlic  seal  of  the  town  of  Stockholm. 

lu'ik.  the  first  of  t1ic  Bondar.  died  in  tt6o,  and  Erik  Laespe, 
the  last  of  thru  rr'ce  ('f  kings,  died  in  T250.  The  intervening  century 
vas  a  periofl  r)f  wnr  aiid  assassination,  and  of  misery  for  the  whole 
Country.  The  onl}'  class  to  prosper  was  the  clergy  and  they  were 
the  only  ones  v^'ho  did  aught  to  mitigate  the  evil  of  the  times.  Lar- 
licularly  did  t!:c  priestliood  slri\-e  in  induce  the  jx'oplc  to  surrender 
their  pagan  pi'actices  of  indiscriminate  di\orcc  and  llie  exposure  of 
infant^.  Tt  v. 'i<  in  this  ])criod.  a.lso.  tint  the  monks,  who  came 
largely  from  |-".ngkmd.  first  taaiglit  tl.e  Swedes  liow  properly  to 
lill  tlie  gronnd.  to  ])reprirc  s.alt.  to  buiM  v\v\  <>])era1e  water  mills, 
and  to  eon-truct  rn-fl,  rmd  bridges.  A  great  nu:ni)c-r  of  these  monks 
met  vi. '''■lit  de:it]!^.  but  their  memorv  has  lingered  e\-en  to  the  pres- 
ent day  in  the  dilT'Tc!-.!  di-^tricts  in  vliieh  the\-  carried  on  their 
l'ib'ir<.  Tim-  t!'e  pcMpic  ,,f  \\'e-;tmrninlan(i  l-ing  honored  the  lri>h 
David  as  a  saint,   v.hile   i:i   Socdernianland  and   Xorland  the  relics 


BEFORE     THE     UNION  103 

1155-1250 

of  the  English  martyrs.  Eothard,  Askill,  and  Stephen,  were  for 
many  ages  cherished  with  greatest  reverence. 

Denmark,  of  course,  often  seized  tlie  opportunity  to  meddle  in 
the  quarrels  of  the  Bondars  and  Sverkers,  extending  asylum  to  the 
defeated  princes  of  each  party  in  turn.  Thus  Sverker  Karlsson,  hav- 
ing murdered  all  but  one  of  the  grandsons  of  Saint  Erik,  found 
refuge  from  the  rage  of  the  Swedish  people  at  the  court  of  Valde- 
mar  IL,  who  lent  him  a  fleet  and  an  army.  Sverker's  defeat  by 
his  former  subjects  in  \A'est  Gothland  in  1208  was  a  body-blow  at 
the  Danish  conqueror's  project  of  adding  Sweden  to  his  dominions. 
Indeed,  Valdemar  II. ,  in  making  peace  with  Erik  Knuilsson,  Saint 
Erik's  surviving  grandson,  gave  him  his  own  sister,  Rikissa,  in 
m.arriage.  Sweden  was  still  a  barbarous  country,  com^pared  even 
with  Denmark,  It  was  related  tliat  when  the  young  princess  landed 
in  West  Gothland  and  found  that  tliere  were  no  carriages  of  any 
kind,  but  that  slie  would  have  to  make  the  long  journey  to  her 
husband's  court  on  horseback,  she  made  bitter  complaint,  much  to 
the  disgust  of  the  Sv\-edish  women  in  attendance.  "  Our  queens," 
they  declared,  "  have  n.ever  yet  been  too  weak  to  sit  upon  a  horse." 
Rikissa  had  one  son,  Erik,  surnamed  Laespe,  or  ''  the  Halt."  In 
1222,  upon  the  death  of  johan  Sverkersson,  tlie  last  of  the  Sverker 
line,  this  prince,  the  last  of  the  Bondars,  succeeded  to  the  Swedish 
throne,  his  reign  lasting  till  1250. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  two  ancient  rival  families  of  Sweden 
were  declining  in  power  a  new  and  greater  family  was  rising  into 
aflluence  and  prominence,  the  Folkungar.  to  wliose  chief,  the  rich 
and  powerful  Birger  Brosa,  King  Erik  had  finally— though  much 
against  his  will — granted  the  title  of  "  Jarl  of  the  Swedes  and  tlie 
Goths."  The  rank  of  jarl  gave  Birger  much  political  power,  at 
the  sam.e  time  tliat  his  wealth  enabled  him  to  li\'e  in  a  princely 
manner.  Birger  also  courted  the  favor  of  the  clergy  with  great 
success,  by  his  championship  of  their  claims  to  immunity,  and  he 
won  the  good-will  of  all  devout  churchmen  by  setting  on  foot  a 
crusade  against  the  pagan  Finns.  v.Fo  were  thus  induced  by  fire  and 
sword  to  renounce  tlieir  old.  faith  and  receive  baptism. 

Birger  being  absent  from  Sweden  when  Erik  Eaespe  died, 
the  Swedish  council  of  state  tfjok  adv;nitage  of  liis  absence  to  choose 
his  youthful  son,  Valdemar,  king.  This  was  the  work  of  Ivar  Bdaa, 
who  was  able  tr)  ansv.'cr  the  argument  that  Valdemar.  as  the  son 
of  Birger  Jarl,  would  be  entirely  under  the  control   of  that  am- 


104.  SCANDINAVIA 

1250-1274 

bitioiis  chieftain,  by  showing-  that  Vaklemar's  election  was  indeed 
the  only  choice  which  the  jarl  would  not  dispute.  The  young  king 
was  accordingly  conducted  to  Upsala  and  presented  at  the  Alora 
Stone  to  the  people  for  their  homage,  and  carried  thence  on  his 
royal  progress,  or  "  Erik's  course,"  which  was  completed  before 
the  jarl's  return  to  Sweden. 

Birger's  return  to  the  kingdom  was  marked  by  loud  complaints 
against  the  council  and  unavailing  threats  to  induce  the  people  to 
set  aside  his  son's  election  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  according 
to  the  ancient  law  which  required  the  jarl's  assent  to  a  royal  elcc- 
tlou.  "  Who  was  the  traitor  who  dared  to  elect  a  king  in  my 
absence?"  demanded  Birger  of  the  first  session  of  the  Dannehof. 
"I  was  the  man."  responded  the  knight  Ivar;  "and  if  my  choice 
does  not  suit  you  it  is  evident  where  alone  we  could  have  found  a 
king  more  to  your  mind."  "  Whom  would  you  choose,"  inquired 
l^iirger.  "if  you  were  to  set  my  son  aside?"  "We  would  think 
about  that."  answered  Tvar.  "  But  there  is  no  lack  of  choice. 
Sweden  might  find  a  king  to  suit  her  under  tin's  cloak  of  mine." 
The  upshot  of  the  matter  was  that  Birger  Jarl  discreetly  decided 
to  let  well  enough  alone  and  to  take  his  place  as  chief  seneschal 
at  Valdemar's  coronation  at  Linkoping.  Indeed,  from  that  time 
till  his  death,  in  1266,  the  jarl  was  the  real,  though  not  the  nom- 
inal, king  of  Sweden,  which  he  ruled  with  a  vigor  and  prudence 
exceptional  in  the  annals  of  that  country.  He  kept  the  nobles  in 
check,  encouraged  knightly  training,  abolished  the  ordeal,  and,  abol- 
ishing the  ancient  maxim  "  where  the  cap  comes  in  the  hat  goes 
out."  cfjufcrred  u])on  (laughters  a  right  of  inheritance  one-half  that 
of  sons.  lie  is  also  credited  with  having  fcmndcd  Stockholm;  at 
any  rate  lie  fortified  it  and  raised  it  to  the  rank  of  an  important 
stronghold,  which  thenceforth  became  one  of  the  realm's  cliief 
defense^  ag.ainst  the  attacks  of  Finnish  pirates. 

The  value  of  Birger's  control  of  affairs  is  seen  from  the  fact 
that  as  soon  as  liis  Ihand  was  withdrawn,  A^aldemar  ruid  his  brothers, 
Duke  ^lagnns  and  I'rince  Erik,  began  to  distract  the  realm  with 
their  cjuarrels.  In  the  midst  of  these  \\'d(lemar  brought  upon  him- 
self tlie  anger  of  the  clergy  by  his  practical  divorce  of  his  (|uecn, 
Sofia.  \vho^c  ])lacc  was  tak'cn  bv  her  sister,  the  nun  Jutta.  To  rid 
him-elf  of  the  reproach  of  has'ing  brought  this  twofold  scandal 
u])on  religion.  V'aldemar.  in  i_'74,  made  by  way  of  ])enance  a  j)il- 
grimage  to  l\()me.     d'his  gave  Magnus,  who  acted  as  regent,  and 


BEFORE     THE     UNION  105 

1274-1290 

Erik  opportunity  to  take  whatever  measures  their  interests  dictated. 
The  next  year  with  the  aid  of  men  and  money  furnished  by  the 
King-  of  Denmark,  they  compelled  Vaklemar  to  flee  his  realm.  The 
fugitive  sought  refuge  in  Norway  at  first,  but  venturing  back 
shortly  he  was  captured  and  imprisoned  by  Duke  Magnus  and 
forced  to  renounce  the  crown  of  Sweden  in  return  for  the  lordship 
of  East  Gothland.  Vaklemar  subsequently  withdrew  to  Denmark, 
but  again  returned  to  Sweden  in  1288.  Again  seized  by  the  order 
of  his  brother,  he  was  from  this  time  on  kept  under  mild  restraint 
in  the  castle  of  Nykoping  until  his  death  in  1302.  His  son,  Erik, 
never  made  any  attempt  to  regain  the  crown  from  his  usurping 
uncle. 

In  the  meantime  Magnus  was  proving  himself  an  able  ruler, 
putting  down  the  revolts  of  his  wealthy  and  unruly  kinsmen  of 
the  Folkungar  family,  and  perfecting  the  work  which  his  father 
had  begun  of  ridding  the  law  of  its  obsolete  and  inequitable  features. 
IMagnus  owed  his  pseudonym  Ladulaas,  "  Barnlock,"  to  a  law 
which  he  secured  limiting  the  right  of  purv^eyance,  a  severe  burden 
to  the  peasantry.  "  No  Roman  emperor  could  wish  for  himself 
a  nobler  appellation  than  Ladulaas,"  says  the  writer  of  the  old 
Swedish  chronicle,  "  and  very  few  could  have  laid  claim  to  it,  for 
the  epithet  Ladubrott,  '  Barnbreaker,'  would  fit  most  rulers  much 
better."  Tlie  most  important  feature  of  i\Iagnus's  legal  reforms, 
however,  connects  itself  with  the  transforma.tion,  which  the  charac- 
ter of  tlie  old  Swedish  nobility  had  been  long  undergoing,  from  that 
of  local  magnates  to  that  of  a  semi-feudal  nobility  of  seiwice. 
Magnus  now  settled  by  definite  legislation  the  kind  of  service  that 
the  crown  might  exact  from  each  order  in  the  state.  Men  were 
distinguished  as  Frcilse,  "  Free,"  and  as  Of  raise,  "  not  Free,"  the 
freedom  in  question  beings  merely  exemption  from  taxation  and 
having  nothing  to  do  with  freedom  of  person  or  property.  In 
return  for  their  exemption  from  taxation,  the  class  of  Fralse  had  to 
furnish  military  service  with  horses,  as  well  as  men.  against  the 
king's  enemies,  whence  the  term  niss-tjcjisf,  Tn  addition  to  their 
service  on  the  field,  the  members  of  this  nobility  were  expected  to 
remain  near  the  king's  person  at  court,  available  for  council  and 
honcjrable  ministrations  to  tlie  royal  comfort  and  dignity.  Magnus 
himself  kept  a  court  of  unprecedented  brilliance  for  his  realm 
and  spent  much  time  and  energy  in  encouraging  the  practices  of 
knighthood   followed   in  southern   l^urope.      1  Ic   was  also  an   un- 


106  SCANDINAVIA 

1290-1317 

wcar}-ing  champion  of  the  church  and  clergy.  In  the  course  of  his 
reign  he  founded  five  monasteries  and  bestowed  large  sums  on 
various  religious  cstablisliments  throughout  his  kingdom.  At  his 
deatli  in  1290  his  body  at  his  own  request  was  placed  in  the  Fran- 
ciscan monastery  of  h.is  own  foundation  in  Stockholm.  '  In  the 
hM])c.'  as  he  declared  in  his  testament,  'that  h.is  memory  might 
not  pass  away  with  the  sound  of  his  funeral  bells.' 

M,'>.gnu>  left  three  sons.  Birgcr,  Erik',  and  \"aldcmar.  Birger. 
the  eldest  and  tlie  first  to  be  made  king,  was  but  nine  ycc'irs  of  age 
in  1290,  but  as  long  as  his  father's  friend,  ^Marshal  Torkel  Knuts- 
son.  go\-erned  for  him  all  went  well,  "riie  Finns,  as  in  Birger 
Jarl's  da}',  were  again  brought  under  subjection  to  the  Swedish 
crown,  and  under  the  sway  of  Ch.ristianity.  A  new  and  complete 
code  f)f  laws,  based  upon  Magnus's  reforms,  was  laid  before  the 
people  at  the  Great  Thing  of  1295  and  ajiproved  by  them,  and  many 
measures  were  taken  for  the  development  ()f  the  realm.  This  ^vas 
during  the  regency.  /\s  soon  as  Birger  began  to  reign  on  his  own 
responsibility  things  began  to  go  awry.  ,\nt!ci])ating  Charles  I.'s 
ingratitude  to  Strafford,  almost  th.e  first  act  of  the  foolish  young 
king  was  to  hand  over  the  faithful  Torkel  to  be  tried  and  con- 
demned for  alleged  treason.  This  measure  Birger  designed  to 
conciliate  his  brothicrs.  Xo  sooner,  howe\-cr,  had  lu-ik  and  A^alde- 
mar  thus  freed  tliemselves  from  tlie  \A-holcsonie  restraint  of  the 
marshrd's  iiifiuence  in  tlie  state,  than  they  seized  the  king  himself 
and  kept  him  in  confinement  till  he  had  signed  a  trcat\'  wherein' 
tl:cy  were  left  to  go\-ern  their  ]:)rovinccs  as  \-irlnal  sovereigns. 
]-.\-cn  tliis  concession  flid  not  win  their  sunport  for  tlic  mijnarcln'. 
l)Ut  later  on.  in  alliance  with  the  king'^  nr  Xorwav  and  nenmarlc, 
tlicy  ])rocecded  to  lay  waste  tlieir  l)i'ot!ier"s  kingdom  in  c\"erv 
])<art,  dc^poihng  whole  districts  of  ever\'  \-cstige  of  food  and  fodder. 

l-'inallv.  b\-  tlie  advice  of  his  rjuecn.  Mart:!,  daiigliler  ot"  h'rik 
Clip])ing.  ilirgcr  mafic  up  his  mind  to  get  rid  of  Ids  tndtorijus 
brctlnxn.  In  tlie  antumn  of  1317  the  ]\irig  and  (  hiecn  of  Sweden 
were:  iioMing  c^nrt  at  llie  cattle  of  Xykf'jping.  Learning  that  \'a!de- 
mar  \\.-i-  on  hi-^  way  fr(;m  (3eland  to  Stockholm,  tlic'\-  iiu'ited  liim 
and  his  1)0  4licr,  I  )nke  i'a-ik.  to  s])end  tlie  yule-tide  with  them.  Tlie 
1\Mi  prmrr-  acci  j)tci  1  I'lc  in\ilation  and  were  welcomed  witli  c\ery 
a])i)c,-iran' c  ol  1  rini'l -liip  ],y  the  king,  wlio.  In  i\\e\-e;",  rt'cpu'Sled  hi> 
gnc-t-  to  all'.v  tlirir  rv.iainc;s  I0  take  nj)  (juarlrrs  in  ihc  town, 
alleging   wiih  aj)ologie>   llie  >niallness  of  tlie  ca.^tk'.      The   re(|ue>t 


BEFORE     THE     UNION  107 

1317-1336 

being  complied  with,  the  bridges  of  the  castle  were  raised,  the  gates 
locked,  and  the  two  princes  thrown  in  chains  into  the  remotest 
dungeon.  "At  last!"  cried  the  exultant  king,  "I  have  Sweden 
in  my  own  hands.''  His  words,  however,  were  but  an  empty  boast. 
A  few  months  later  the  people  o^*  Nykoping  arose  in  revolt  to 
avenge  the  two  princes,  who  had  in'  the  meantime  succumbed  to 
the  rigors  of  their  confinement.  The  castle  of  Xvkoping  was 
razed  to  the  ground,  and  in  13 19,  the  revolt  having  become  gen- 
eral, Birger,  with  his  queen  and  daughter,  fled  to  the  Danish  court, 
where  his  son,  iMagnus,  was  already  a  refugee.  The  following  year 
Magnus  ventured  back  to  Sweden,  and,  falling-  into  the  hands  of 
his  foes,  was  publicly  beheaded  at  Stockholm. 

This  calamity  brought  Birger  himself  to  the  grave.  He  was 
buried  at  Ringsted  abbey,  the  resting-place  of  many  of  the  early 
Danish  kings. 

In  Sweden,  in  the  meantime,  the  penple  were  rallying  enthusi- 
astically to  the  following  of  Mats  Ketilmundsson,  who  on  mid- 
summer-day, 13 19,  appeared  before  tlie  assembly  of  the  Thing  at 
Upsala  and  persuaded  the  people  to  receive  as  king-  Duke  Erik's 
son,  ]\Iagnus,  an  infant  scarcely  three  years  of  age.  The  next  year 
a  number  of  the  Swedisli  nobility  having  undertaken  an  embassy 
to  Norway  to  demand  the  homage  of  that  kingdom  for  Magnus, 
who  through  his  mother,  Ingeborg,  daughter  of  Hakon  V.,  was 
really  the  nearest  heir  to  the  Norwegian  crown,  succeeded  in  their 
Cjuest  and  secured  the  organization  of  a  council  of  state  to  govern 
the  kingdom  in  Alagnus's  name  until  he  should  obtain,  his  nicijority. 
The  years  immediately  following  se'em  to  l;ave  been  a  prosperous 
era  for  both  kingdoms.  In  the  year  1332  representatives  came 
from  the  provinces  o;f  Skaania,  Ilalland,  and  BJeking,  which  had 
been  pawned  by  Erik  ^.lenved  and  Christoplier  II.  of  Denmark  to 
the  Swedish  council  of  state,  off'eriiig-  to  take  oaths  of  allegiance 
to  King  ]\Iagnus  on  behalf  of  tliemselvcs  and  tlieir  countrymen,  if 
only  they  might  be  united  to  the  vSwedisli  kingdom.  Erom  the 
Gulf  of  I'inland  to  the  fjords  of  N(jr\vay,  and  to  the  Sound,  llie 
entire  north  now  owned  Magnus's  swaw  Nut  till  i  ^^j^^^'i.  liowevcr, 
with  the  death  oi  IMats  Ketilmundss(jn  did  Magnus's  sole  reign  1)c- 
gin.  and  then  there  was  a  sudden  close  to  the  long  period  of  pros- 
perity. The  young  king  and  liis  (jueen  were  governed  by  their 
own  selfish  desires  for  ])leasure  and  were  entirely  in  the  control 
of  evil  and  designing  favorites.     Eurthermore,  they  found  it  hu- 


108  SCANDINAVIA 

1336-1360 

possible  to  reside  in  one  kingdom  without  exciting"  the  resentment 
and  jealousy  of  the  other.  Thus  things  went  from  bad  to  worse. 
In  the  year  1350  the  king's  elder  son,  Prince  Erik,  putting  himself 
at  tlie  head  of  the  most  powerful  elements  of  the  kingdom,  formally 
demanded  that  the  king  and  queen  should  exile  their  unworthy 
favorite,  Bengl  Algotsson.  .\t  the  same  moment  the  Norwegians 
asked  to  have  Hakon,  Magnus's  second  son,  set  over  them  as  their 
independent  ruler.  Soon  afterward  Prince  Erik,  who  was  very 
popular,  died  under  circumstances  that  gave  rise  to  the  suspicion 
that  he  had  been  poisoned  by  his  mother,  Queen  Blanka.  Three 
other  causes  for  revolt  were  shortly  added  by  ■Magnus :  his  sur- 
render to  King  Valdemar  Atterdag  of  Denmark  of  the  provinces  of 
Skaania,  Halland,  and  Picking,  in  return  for  a  secret  promise  of 
aid  against  the  Swedish  Dannehof ;  his  marriage  of  his  young  son, 
Hakon,  to  ^Margaret  of  Denmark,  another  ruse  of  the  crafty  Dan- 
ish monarch;  and  his  order  compelling  the  exile  of  twenty-four  of 
the  most  powerful  nobles  of  Sweden.  The  exiles  made  haste  to 
obey  the  order,  but  it  was  only  to  betake  themselves  to  the  court  of 
Mecklenburg  to  offer  the  Swedish  crown  to  Count  Albert,  son  of 
King  Magnus's  only  sister,  Euphemia.  The  count  accepted  with 
joy,  and  landing  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  1363,  on  the 
Swedish  coast,  was  at  once  chosen  king  by  the  (ircat  Thing,  which 
at  the  same  time  declared  that  both  Magnus  and  Hakon  had  for- 
feited the  allegiance  of  the  people  on  account  of  their  lack  of  good 
faith  in  their  dealings  with  their  subjects  and  their  friendly  conduct 
with  the  enemies  of  the  kingdom.  In  a  battle  fought  between  the 
rival  kings  at  ]"hik6])ing-  in  1365  Magnus  was  taken  capti\'e,  and  was 
Uitt  set  at  liberty  till  137T.  In  that  year  it  was  settled  by  a  treaty 
between  .Vlbert  and  Ilakon,  that  Mag'uus  might  enjoy  certain  rev- 
enues and  reside  at  the  Norwegian  court,  on  condition  that  neiihcr 
he  nor  his  son  should  make  any  attempt  to  regain  the  Swedish 
crown. 

Magnus  Smek  was  partly  the  victim  of  circumstance,  for  it  was 
in  his  unhappy  reign  in  the  decade  between  1330  and  13^)0  that 
the  lilack  Death  swe])t  o\-er  N(jrway  .and  Sweden.  W'hat  with 
its  ra\-ages  ;ind  the  incessant  devastations  of  civil  strife,  many  pc'ir- 
i.^hes  were  left  almost  clepupulated. 

.Vlbert  of  Mecklenburg  had  been  chosen  king  by  the  nobles  of 
Sweden  under  tlie  impression  that  he  would  ])rove  a  mere  pu])pet 
in  their  hands.     They  found,  however,  that  he  was  less  pliable  than 


BEFORE     THE     UNION  109 

1360-1385 

they  had  fondly  supposed.  Their  anger  at  their  disappointment 
was  aggravated  by  the  new  king's  introduction  into  Sweden  of 
a  great  crowd  of  German  favorites,  upon  whom  he  proceeded  to 
bestow  ah  the  offices  of  state  that  he  could  lay  his  hands  upon.  A 
movement  was  now  set  on  foot  looking  to  the  restoration  of  King 
Magnus.  The  support  of  the  peasantry  was  secured  by  an  appeal 
to  the  council  of  state,  in  which  the  nobility  joined,  praying  for 
the  relief  of  the  lower  orders  from  their  heavy  burdens.  This 
role  of  defenders  of  the  people  fell  in  well  with  the  systematic  op- 
position of  the  nobility  to  the  monarchy.  It  was,  however,  a  mere 
pretext.  In  point  of  fact  the  nobles  cared  very  little  about  the 
troubles  of  the  peasantry.  Their  own  petty  grievances  being  tem- 
porarily allayed,  they  found  it  easy  and  convenient  to  forget  their 
erstwhile  championship  of  the  popular  cause.  Indeed,  the  people 
lost  all  around.  For  King  Albert,  in  looking  about  for  outside  sup- 
port, conferred  upon  the  Hansers  an  extension  of  their  already 
great  privileges  in  trade,  much  to  the  detriment  of  Swedish 
commerce. 

Meanwhile,  Albert  still  persisted  in  his  irritating  partiality 
toward  his  German  favorites,  and  at  last  the  council  of  state  again 
roused  itself  to  make  protest.  Albert  was  informed  that  if  he 
wished  to  retain  the  Swedish  crown,  the  higher  offices  of  state 
and  particularly  the  command  of  the  royal  fortresses  must  devolve 
upon  Swedes.  In  1371  a  compromise  was  effected  whereby  the 
king  chose  Bo  Jonsson,  the  richest  and  most  powerful  member  of 
the  Swedish  nobility,  to  be,  as  the  phrase  ran,  the  king's  "  all-power- 
ful helper."  Jonsson  was  vested  with  authority  "  over  the  royal 
courts,  palace,  lands,  officers,  and  servants,  and  to  choose  the  mem- 
bers of  the  council  of  state,  when  any  should  be  removed  by  death, 
and  in  all  things  to  enjoy  regal  power."  As  the  Rhyming  Chronicle 
has  it:  "Bo  Jonsson  ruled  the  land  with  the  glance  of  his -eye." 
In  fact,  however,  he  showed  himself  either  unable  or  unwilling  to 
quell  in  any  degree  the  license  of  the  nobility  or  to  put  a  stop  to 
the  private  warfare  which  was  rampant  at  the  time.  Bo  Jonsson 
himself  on  one  occasion  followed  an  enemy,  Carl  Nilsson,  into  the 
church  of  the  Franciscans  at  Stockholm  and  hacked  him  to  pieces 
before  the  high  altar.  His  death  in  1385,  followed  as  it  was  by  a 
claim  on  the  part  of  his  heirs  to  his  position  in  the  state,  gave  the 
signal  for  the  general  civil  war  which  had  long  been  impending. 
This  shortly  led  to  the  Danish  con(|UCst. 


Chapter   X 

DENMARK   AND    THE    UNION    OF    CALMAR.     1286-1412 


T 


F"  ■  A II F.  downfall  of  the  Hohenstaufen  in  the  sixth  decade  of 
the  thirteenth  century  marks  the  end  of  active  pretensions 
on  tlie  pcirt  of  the  empire  over  Denmark  proper,  though 
many  voluntary  acts  of  Danish  sovereigns  evidence  the  persistence 
of  the  imperial  tradition  down  to  the  very  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  achievement  of  independence  did  not,  however,  check 
the  decline  into  political  insignificance  which  had  begun  under  the 
sons  of  Valdemar  II.  and  continued  till  the  Union  of  Calmar. 
\n  i2cSr)  Erik  Clipping  was  assassinated,  bringing  his  son,  Erik 
Alcnved,  the  "  Hesitant,''  to  the  throne.  The  accession  of  the  son 
was,  in  a  number  of  ways,  the  counterpart  of  that  of  the  father  three 
decades  before.  Here  again  was  a  boy-king  under  the  tutelage  and 
regency  oi  a  motlier  who  was  unable  to  speak  the  language  of  the 
country. 

She  was  called  upon  to  rule ;  again  a  general  defection  among 
the  nol)les  and  h.igher  clergy  ;  again  rebels  laying  waste  the  country. 
These  latter  were  for  the  most  part  the  regicides  and  their  fol- 
lowers, who  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  the  Norwegian  king,  Erik 
Praesthader,  They  were  thus  powerful  enough  at  first  to  seize 
several  fortified  places  along  the  Danish  coasts  and  upon  adjoining 
islands,  and  frcmi  these  strongholds  to  spread  their  devastation  with 
fire  and  sword  for  nearly  a  decade.  \i  last,  however,  the  fidelity 
of  a  .-mail  element  of  the  nobility,  headed  by  the  learned  chancellor, 
-Martinu?  de  Dacia,  wlu^se  fame  was  European,  and  the  ability  of 
tlie  regent  lu-'-;e]f,  Agnes  of  f>ran<lenburg,  brought  these  troubles 
to  a  cl(,).-e.  The  death  in  T293  of  tlie  Marshal  Stig,  the  most  for- 
midable of  ilic  rebels,  was  followed  shortly  after  by  the  ca])ture  of 
anoilicr,  Naiic  jon-en,  ulio  was  jjromptly  broken  on  the  wheel. 
TIic  fright  fid  i-coiirgc  to  which  these  pirates  had  subjected  the 
entire  kingdom  now  ceased. 

-Meanwliilc.  the  \oung  king  and  his  brother,  Erincc  Christo- 
])her,  had  been  underg(jing  careful  training  in  all  knightly  exercises 

110 


UNION     OF     CALMAR  111 

1286-1319 

under  the  marshal,  or  drost  peder.  Unfortunatelv.  however,  this 
martial  schooling  imbued  the  youthful  Erik  with  such  an  enthusiasm 
for  war,  that,  having  become  actually  monarch,  he  was  no  longer 
content  with  its  mimic  exercises.  So  in  spite  of  the  distress  and 
famine  rampant  in  Denmark,  he  entered  upon  costly  and  useless 
campaigns  against  the  Christian  as  well  as  the  pagan  lands  of 
eastern  Germany.  In  later  years,  when  his  impoverished  subjects 
were  no  longer  able  to  supply  money  for  these  bootless  enterprises. 
or  for  the  splendid  tournaments  which  he  held  in  honor  of  his 
empty  successes  in  Pomerania  and  Esthonia,  he  pawned  or  sold 
nearly  all  the  crown  lands,  till  at  last  there  was  scarcely  an  acre 
remaining  of  the  once  extensive  domain  of  the  Danish  monarch, 
and  this,  it  must  be  remembered,  was  in  an  age  when  the  fiscal 
machinery  of  modern  governments  was  still  in  embryo  and  the 
returns  from  his  crown  lands  and  other  personal  holdings  con- 
stituted the  most  important  source  of  revenue  of  every  ruler  in 
Europe.  Erik's  folly,  moreover,  impaired  not  only  the  position  of 
the  monarchy,  but  also  the  means  of  livelihood  of  his  subjects:  for 
among  his  other  sacrifices  he  parted  with  a  long  strip  of  coastlands, 
with  all  the  herring  fisheries  in  the  adjacent  seas,  to  tlie  Tlanse 
traders,  who,  in  tlie  enforcement  of  their  concession,  stationed 
armed  vessels  in  the  waters  in  question  for  the  purpose  of  seeing 
to  it  that  the  servants  of  the  royal  houseliold  left  the  fishing  grounds 
as  soon  as  they  had  salted  one  day's  catch  of  herring  for  the  royal 
kitchen. 

But  long"  before  this  final  abject  condition  of  his  finances 
Erik  had  become  involved  in  a  furious  contest  witli  the  church. 
The  occasion  was  afforded  by  the  choice  of  Johan  Grand  to  suc- 
ceed Erlandsen  as  Archbisiiop  of  Lund,  despite  tlie  objections  of 
Erik  and  the  dov.-ager,  who  believed  tliat  Grand  had  given  aid  and 
comfort  to  the  regicides  in  the  struggle  riot  yet  ended.  Indeed,  no 
sooner  had  Grand  achieved  th.e  primacy  than  lie  revealed  his  alliance 
with  the  rebels  and  his  readiness  to  assist  in  all  measures  calculated 
to  discredit  the  monarch.  Erik  now  ordered  Prince  CIn"istopher 
to  seize  the  recalcitrant  arclibishop  an.d  to  put  him  in  Soborg  keep. 
It  seems  probable  that  the  prince  carried  out  h.is  instructions  with 
great  harshness  and  that  du.ring  his  confincmont  the  primage  was 
subjected  to  continual  outrage.  After  eiglu  niontlis  of  this  sort 
of  treatment,  however,  he  was  assisted  by  some  inor,k-s  to  escape 
to  Bornholm  and  thence  to  Rome.   At  this  moment  the  Papal  throne 


112  SCANDINAVIA 

1286-1319 

was  occupied  by  Boniface  VIII.,  who  surpassed  even  the  most 
powerful  of  his  predecessors  in  his  statement  of  the  Papal  preroga- 
tive, declaring  in  the  famous  Bull  of  Unaiii  SanctaDi  that  it  was 
''  altogether  necessary  to  salvation  for  every  liuman  being  to  be 
subject  to  the  Roman  Pontiff."  It  may  be  imagined  with  what 
avidity  his  holiness  drank  in  the  highly  colored  account  that 
Grand  gave  him  of  his  wrongs  and  of  the  insult  that  Erik  had  lev- 
eled at  the  church.  \\'ithout  waiting  to  hear  the  other  side  of  the 
story.  Ijoniface  promptly  mulcted  Erik  of  49,000  ounces  of  silver 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Papal  camera.  Erik  now  forwarded  to  Rome 
an  elaborate  statement  of  his  case  with  the  result  that  the  Pope  inter- 
preted it  as  a  defiance  and  more  mcensed  than  ever  at  such  presump- 
tion, ordered  his  legate  Isarnus  to  lay  Denmark  under  an  interdict. 
But,  as  on  former  occasions,  the  interdict  was  only  a  very  partial 
success.  The  people,  partly  because  they  sympathized  with  the 
king,  but  more  because  of  their  sense  of  the  absolute  necessity  of 
the  ministrations  of  the  church,  were  Cjuite  willing  to  brave  th.e 
authc;rity  of  the  Pope,  Thus,  when  the  clergy  tried  to  close  the 
churches,  the  peasantry  rushed  to  arms  and  forced  their  priests  to 
perform,  at  the  peril  of  their  lives,  the  offices  of  religion.  Xever- 
tlicless.  the  victory  in  the  end  lay  with  the  l^ope.  In  1303  after  the 
interdict  had  been  in  force  five  years  Erik  addressed  a  most  contrite 
letter  to  th.e  Pope,  begging  for  pardon  and  for  the  relief  of  his 
kingdom  from  the  Papal  curse.  The  request  was  granted.  Erik 
paid  10,000  ounces  of  silver  into  the  Papal  treasury,  and  was  per- 
manently relieved  of  Johan  Grand,  who  was  given  an  archbishopric 
in  France.  Grand's  successor  was  Esger  Juel,  with  whom  also 
Erik,  toward  the  close  of  his  reign,  became  involved  in  a  quarrel, 
and  who  was  likewise  compelled  to  emigrate. 

King  Erik  was  as  unfortunate  in  his  family  concerns  as  in  his 
conduct  of  public  affairs,  for  of  all  his  fourteen  children  not  one 
survived  him.  Xaturally,  therefore,  in  his  declining  days  he  began 
trj  feel  coiT^idcrnblc  concern  as  to  who  should  be  his  successor,  and 
knowing  the  amhitirnis  and  deceitful  character  of  his  only  brother. 

Duk'c  Ghri<loi)her,  he  called  together  the  nobles  and  prelates  of 
hcniiiark,  and.  tc-lling  them  that  he  apprehended  his  own  life  to  be 
near  il-,  clo-e.  begged  them  to  tak'e  coun-el  togellier  and  settle  upon 
^'inie  prince   t'.r  tiieir  future  king,  wlm  would  ])rove  a  just  ruler. 

I  he  CMiiiicil  (,\  vi;ife  tliereu])!)!!  nominated  1  )iike  Christopher,  ap- 
parenily  ignoring  Jirik's  unfavorable  opinion. 


UNION     OF     CAL  MAR  113 

1319-1341 

This  was  not  really  the  case,  however,  for  when  Erik  died 
next  year  this  unscrupulous  organ  of  the  nobility  determined  to 
make  Christopher  pay  right  smartly  for  his  dignity.  By  the  terms 
of  the  charter  of  13 19,  which  Christopher  was  compelled  to  sign 
and  which  in  certain  respects  reminds  one  of  the  ]\Iagna  Charta, 
the  nobles  and  clergy  were  freed  from  all  taxation  by  the  king,  and 
were  excused  from  the  duty  of  carrying  their  arms  beyond  the  limit 
of  Denmark  in  defense  of  the  kingdom.  At  the  same  time  the 
king  must  ransom  them  if  they  should  chance  to  be  taken  prisoners 
of  war.  In  short,  nobles  and  prelates,  now  at  the  height  of  their 
power,  took  such  good  care  of  their  own  interests  that  very  little 
power  was  left  to  the  monarch.  Christopher,  however,  made  no 
protest  agamst  the  hard  bargain  that  he  was  forced  to  accept,  but 
he  secretly  resolved  to  bide  his  time  and  to  cast  off  the  agreement 
as  soon  as  possible. 

In  the  course  of  the  civil  wars  which  inevitably  ensued  the 
nobles  called  in  a  powerful  neighbor  to  their  assistance,  Count 
Gerhard,  of  Holstein. 

"  Black  Geert "  speedily  routed  the  king's  troops  and  took 
his  eldest  son  Prince  Erik  captive.  Instead  of  letting  Christopher 
have  a  share  in  the  guardianship  of  young  Valdemar  of  Slesvig", 
which  the  Danish  king  had  claimed  as  a  right,  he  drove  the  king 
himself  out  of  the  kingdom,  and,  persuading  the  Danes  to  declare 
the  throne  vacant,  set  Duke  V'^aldemar,  his  own  nephew,  thereon.'^ 
For  fourteen  years  Black  Geert  was  the  real  king  of  Denmark,  of 
whose  lands  and  people  he  made  about  what  disposition  he  chose, 
while  Christopher  and  his  sons,  although  sometimes  able  to  make 
head  for  a  time  against  their  foes,  were  seldom  left  very  long  in  the 
enjoyment  of  power.  Christopher's  death  in  1332  did  not  alter 
the  situation  materially  and  for  eight  years  longer  the  Danes  were 
under  the  sway  of  the  Count  of  Holstein.  Finally,  in  the  year  1341, 
Denmark  was  freed  from  her  taskmaster  by  the  daring  Niels 
Ebbeson,  who,  with  sixty-three  serving  men,  forced  his  way  into 
the  castle  of  Randers  and  slew  Count  Geert  in  the  midst  of  his  own 
people  and  of  his  army  of  newly  levied  Germans. 

Immediately  the  great  Holstein  army  seemed  to  melt  away. 
The  Jutlanders  rose  in  a  body,  and,  placing  themselves  under  the 
command  of   Niels   Ebbeson,   stormed   the   German   forts,   carried 

1  Valdemar  of   Slesvi^'-.  crowned   King  of  Denmark   as  Valdemar   III.,  was 
the  cousin  of  King  Christopher  II. 


114,  SCANDINAVIA 

1341-1375 

evcrvthint^  before  them,  and  drove  the  Holsteiners  back  to  their  own 
territory.  Later,  new  armies,  led  by  Geert's  son,  Henry,  the  "  Iron 
Count."  appeared  in  Jutland  and  defeated  Niels  Ebbeson  in  a  fierce 
battle  at  Skandersborg,  w'here  the  latter  fell,  together  with  two  of 
his  own  sons  and  a  large  number  of  his  men.  But  the  Iron  Count 
cared  merely  to  take  vengeance  on  his  father's  murderer,  so,  with- 
drawing his  troops  after  his  victory  at  Skandersborg,  he  left  his 
cousin,  Valdemar  of  Slesvig,  and  the  Danish  princes  to  decide  as 
they  liked  upon  the  fate  of  Denmark.  Thus,  from  the  moment 
Christopher  obtained  the  crown  till  the  murder  of  Geert  in  1340 
the  country  had  been  torn  by  civil  war,  and  while  a  few  nobles 
made  themselves  powerful  at  the  expense  of  the  crown,  many  old 
families  were  reduced  to  beggary,  the  remnants  of  trade  were  de- 
stroyed, and  the  peasants  were  so  crushed  that  they  sunk  into  what 
was  little  better  than  slavery. 

At  Christopher's  death  in  1332  he  left  only  two  sons,  his  eld- 
est, Prince  Erik,  having  died  some  years  before  in  a  useless  at- 
tempt to  reccn'er  the  crown  for  him.  Otto,  the  second  son,  was  a 
prisfjner  in  Holstein.  Tlie  youngest,  Valdemar,,  was  living  in  peace 
at  thiC  court  of  the  lunpcror  Louis  of  Bavaria,  wdio  had  given  him 
a  kind  reception,  when,  after  the  defeat  of  his  father  and  brothers, 
lie  had  fled  to  Germany.  This  }-oung-  prince,  who  had  been  spend- 
ing hi.-i  time  in  jousting  and  other  amusements  while  his  native 
country  was  being  brouglit  to  ruin  by  its  enemies,  was  the  one  on 
whom  the  choice  of  the  Danes  fell,  when  by  the  murder  of  Count 
Ciccrt  they  found  themselves  free  to  elect  a  king.  Valdemar  of 
Slcs\ig  was  entirely  ignored.  Indeed,  he  made  no  effort  to  retain 
th.c  crown,  but  on  the  arrival  of  the  young  Danish  Prince  Valdemar 
from  (icrrnany  entered  into  a  friendly  compact  with  him.  and  not 
onl_\-  refused  to  o])pc)r,c  his  election  to  the  throne,  but  gave  him  his 
si-tcr.  Iledwi;/.  in  marriai;'e.  with  a  dowry  of  24.000  silver  marks. 
I  le  tlien  rctirci  to  his  own  Slesvig  territories  well  ])]eased  to  be 
f!"''c  of  il.c  ti'M)iJ)]c  of  ruling  such  an  unha])])y  and  impox-erished 
kingfliin  a^  Denmark.  Xotln'ng  now  stood  in  the  way  of  the  new 
h'in,L';".>  MU'cc.-^.  .'ind  aficr  he  liad  forced  his  br(jther  Otto  to  re- 
11'  lUiicc  ;  li  r!:iini  to  tlie  tin-onc  and  to  enter  the  monastic  order  of  the 
( iLT)ii:iii  Kiiighl-,  as  {he  price  of  his  liberty,  he  had  no  other  rival 
to   fear. 

\  .'ildciiKir,  ]il:c  !  Icnrv  V\\.  of  luigland.  from  the  moment  of 
his  .-irc(- .i.  ill  till  ihc  d.'iy  of  liis  deatli  in    1375,  made  the  acqui^itiou 


UNION     OF     CALMAR  115 

1341-1375 

of  money  the  chief  object  of  his  poHcy,  not  because  he  cared  to 
hoard  weahh,  but  because  he  was  eager  to  recover  the  lost  crown 
lands  that  Erik  Menved  had  pawned,  and  because  he  knew  well 
that  only  by  achieving  financial  independence  could  he  hope  to 
restore  the  decayed  authority  of  the  monarchy,  which  was  now  at 
its  lowest  ebb,  against  the  disintegrating  tendencies  of  the  nobility. 
It  is  even  said  that  Valdemar  loved  his  wife,  Princess  Hedwig  of 
Slesvig,  only  on  account  of  lier  dowry.  At  any  rate,  as  soon  as 
the  money  was  in  his  possession  he  used  it  to  redeem  a  large  part 
of  Jutland.  Soon  afterward,  with  the  19,000  silver  marks  which 
he  got  from  the  German  Knights  in  return  for  the  province  of 
Esthonia,  he  recovered  another  large  tract,  lying  also  within  the 
old  Danish  monarchy.  The  people  were  well  pleased  to  watch  the 
recovery  of  its  domain  by  the  crown  as  long  as  the  king  raised 
money  without  asking  them  for  it.  But  when  he  began  to  levy 
taxes  for  the  same  purpose,  owing  to  the  evil  lessons  of  the  pre- 
vious years  of  habitual  disorder  they  rose  into  rebellion. 

The  civil  wars  dragged  on  desultorily  for  several  years,  being 
constantly  rekindled  and  fanned  into  flame  by  numerous  adjoining 
princes,  who  had  a  notion  tliat  the  humiliation  of  Denmark  meant 
their  aggrandizement.  At  last,  in  1360,  the  frugal  Valdemar  con- 
cluded that  a  more  expeditious  way  to  get  money  than  by  taxation 
would  be  to  attack  the  rich  Hanse  town  of  Wisby  on  tlie  Island  of 
Gothland.  He  had  no  quarrel  with  the  Hanse  traders  at  tlie 
time;  had,  indeed,  only  just  signed  a  treaty  in  whicli  he  had  pledged 
himself  to  respect  their  rights  and  to  give  due  notice  if  ever  he 
meant  to  make  war  on  any  of  their  cities.  These  treaties,  however, 
were  no  obstacle  to  Valdemar,  Having  set  eyes  on  tlie  stores  of 
money,  rich  silks,  furs,  and  other  costly  wares  that  were  housed 
away  in  \A'isby  to  be  sent  on  to  the  ports  of  the  northern  seas,  he 
resolved  to  seize  them.  \\'ithout  giving  notice,  therefore,  he  at- 
tacked the  island  with  a  great  fleet,  forced  the  Gothlanders  to  sub- 
mit, and  made  himself  master  of  W'isb}-,  riding  into  the  town 
through  a  breach  in  the  walls  after  tlie  manner  of  the  great  con- 
querors of  olden  times.  Then  loading  his  ships  with  gold,  silver 
and  an  immense  booty  of  all  kinds,  he  sailed  b.'ick  to  Denmark  in 
high  glee,  calling  himself  from  that  time  fortii  king  of  the  Goths,  as 
well  as  of  the  Danes. 

He  was  not  left,  however,  to  enjoy  his  success  very  long,  for 
the  Hansers  and  the  Swedes  were  equally  enraged,  and,  althougli 


116  SCANDINAVIA 

1341-1375 

the  latter  did  no  more  than  threaten,  the  former  made  war  in  good 
earnest  against  Valdemar.  When  the  German  heralds  came  in 
great  state  to  the  castle  of  Vordingborg,  where  the  king  was  then 
holding  his  court,  and  began  to  read  aloud  their  formal  notice  of 
war,  he  made  sport  of  them  and  bade  them  go  back  to  the  seventy- 
seven  German  towns  in  whose  name  they  had  come.  It  is  said  that 
Valdemar,  to  show  his  contempt  for  the  traders,  sent  them  a  letter 
in  rhyme  of  which  the  following  was  one  of  the  least  coarse  and 
offensive  verses : 

"If  seventy-seven  ganders 
Come  cackling,  come  cackling  at  me ; 
If  seventy-seven  Hansers 
Come  crowing,  come  crowing  at  me; 
Do  you  think  I  care  two  stivers? 
Not  I !    I  care  not  two  stivers  !  " 

The  Germans  were  beaten  both  at  sea  and  on  land  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  and  Valdemar  caused  his  prisoners  to  be  shut 
up  in  one  of  the  towers  of  Vordingborg  castle,  over  which  he  set 
a  gilt  goose  as  an  insult  to  the  traders.  These  insults  merely  served 
to  increase  the  bitterness  of  the  German  traders  toward  the  Danes ; 
they  proceeded  to  collect  an  overwhelming  fleet;  also  to  make  com- 
mon cause  with  the  counts  of  Holstein  and  with  Albert  of  ]\Ieck- 
lenburg,  who  had  private  grievances  of  their  own  to  avenge  upon 
X^aldemar.  The  ITolstein  princes  were  angry  because  tlie  Danish 
king  had  seized  their  sister,  the  Princess  Elizabeth  of  Ilolstein- 
Gottorp.  as  she  was  on  her  way  to  Sweden  to  marry  Ilakon.  heir 
to  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian  crowns,  and  had  kept  her  closely 
guarded  in  his  own  palace  on  the  pretense  that  he  was  extremely 
solicitous  for  her  health  which  was,  he  was  sure,  too  delicate  to 
allow  her  to  cross  the  sea  at  that  stormy  season  of  the  year. 

Valdcmar's  real  moti\-e  had,  of  course,  been  a  far  different 
one;  namely,  to  prevent  the  marriage  of  Elizabeth  witli  the  Swed- 
ish prince,  as  he  liad  set  his  heart  upon  seeing  his  own  little  daugh- 
ter, ?\largaret.  married  to  the  future  king  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 
When,  therefore,  tlie  sin"])  in  which  Elizabeth  was  making  tlie  voy- 
age ran  asliore  rin  tlie  coast  of  Sjaclland,  Valdemar  was  not  slow 
to  see  liis  o])])ortn,!n'L\-.  Sending  an  urgent  message  to  the  King 
and  Queen  of  .Sweden  to  beg  that  thev  would  bring  their  son  to 
spend  the  ynlc-ti(lc  witli  him,  he  made  all  things  ready,  .and  when 
they  arrived   he   persuaded   them   to   consent   to   the   marriage   of 


UNION     OF     CAL  MAR  117 

1341-1375 

Prince  Hakon  with  his  daughter,  Alargaret,  and  let  the  wedding- 
be  celebrated  at  once;  also,  incidentally,  to  give  up  the  bonds  and 
charters  by  which  Sweden  held  in  pawn  Skaania  and  the  other 
Danish  provinces,  pledged  by  King  Christopher.  There  was  great 
rejoicing  at  Copenhagen  in  honor  of  the  marriage,  and  feasting  and 
jousting  went  on  day  after  day  for  the  entertainment  of  the  Swed- 
ish princes.  But  before  the  close  of  all  this  merry-making  Queen 
Blanka  of  Sweden  was  taken  ill  and  died,  whereupon  King  ]\Iagnus 
offered  to  take  the  Holstein  princess  to  be  his  second  wife,  if  he 
could  be  sure  of  getting  her  large  dowry.  The  unfortunate  Eliza- 
beth, refusing  with  anger  to  listen  to  the  king's  offers,  dispatched 
secret  messengers  to  inform  her  brothers  of  the  shamicful  manner 
in  which  she  had  been  treated,  and  to  entreat  that  they  would 
avenge  the  wrongs  she  had  suffered  at  King  Valdemar's  hands. 

These  events  had  taken  place  soon  after  the  Hansers'  defeat 
by  the  Danes.  When  the  former  heard  of  the  close  alliance  that 
their  enemy  had  formed  with  Sweden  and  Norway  they  felt  still 
greater  anxiety  for  their  safety  and  making  great  efforts  to  raise 
forces  and  excite  enemies  against  the  king  before  he  could  prepare 
another  expedition  similar  to  the  one  against  Wisby,  they  soon 
had  him  beset  by  enemies  on  all  sides.  Valdemar  did  not  see  the 
greatness  of  his  peril  till  it  was  too  late,  and  when  the  counts  of 
Holstein,  eager  to  avenge  the  insult  offered  to  their  sister,  induced 
several  German  princes  to  join  them  and  the  leaguers  against  the 
Danish  king,  he  was  forced,  after  a  sh.ort  but  fierce  war,  to  submit, 
and  to  secure  terms  of  peace  by  giving  up  Skaania  and  the  other 
old  Danish  provinces.  These  lands  he  had  recovered,  as  we  have 
seen,  from  Magnus  Smek,  and  the  Danes,  who  had  rejoiced  at  their 
restoration  to  the  Danish  monarchy,  were  now  equally  mortified  at 
their  loss,  while  the  council  of  state  and  the  nobles  made  their 
king's  misfortunes  an  excuse  for  refusing  to  aid  in  retrieving  them. 
Valdemar,  to  defend  himself,  in  1368  withdrew  from  Denmark 
with  his  family  to  Germany,  where  he  hoped  to  recruit  aid  from 
certain  kinsmen. 

For  more  than  four  years  Denmark  remained  without  a  king, 
and  her  people,  either  from  im]:)0tence  or  slieer  indifference,  allowed 
the  Germans  and  liolsteincrs  to  manage  public  affairs  as  they  liked. 
So  completely  had  the  Hansers  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
Danish  kingclr)m  tliat  Valdemar  had  to  buy  peace  and  secure  the 
right   of   resuming   the    regal    power   at    terms    dictated   by    these 


118  SCANDINAVIA 

1341-1375 

traders.  By  the  famous  Treaty  of  Stralsimd  of  1370  it  was  stipu- 
lated that  the  traders  of  the  German  Hanse  League  should  have 
equal  voice  with  the  Danish  nobles,  prelates,  and  burghers  in  the 
election  of  the  future  kings  of  Denmark.  During  the  remaining 
three  years  of  his  life  Vaklemar  had  the  good  sense  to  refrain  from 
all  attempts  to  make  war  on  his  old  enemies,  and  to  devote  himself 
to  the  good  of  his  people.  In  spite,  however,  of  all  his  efforts 
to  benefit  them,  he  never  regained  the  esteem  of  his  subjects,  and 
in  the  songs  and  tales  invented  about  him  and  repeated  among  the 
Danish  peasants  from  one  generation  to  the  other,  even  till  our  own 
times,  he  is  always  spoken  of  as  a  hard,  crafty  prince,  ready  to  bar- 
ter his  very  soul  for  money,  and  willing  to  sell  the  lives  and  comfort 
of  those  nearest  to  him  to  gratify  his  own  ambition.  The  supersti- 
tious country  people  long  continued  to  give  proof  of  the  fear  and 
hatred  in  which  this  stern  but  able  king  had  been  held  in  his 
own  times.  Among  all  their  national  tales  "  Vaklemar  the  Bad  " 
was  made  to  play  the  part  of  Satan  or  one  of  his  familiar  spirits, 
and  when  in  the  winter  night's  storm  they  heard  a  sudden  rush  of 
wind  and  a  howling  of  the  tempest,  they  were  wont  to  say  that 
King  Valdemar  was  driving  his  hounds  with  lash  and  spur  through 
the  air  to  the  hunting  grounds  on  Lake  Esrom,  which  he  was  re- 
ported to  have  said  would  be  dearer  to  him  after  death  than  heaven 
itself. 

Valdemar  was  surnamed  Atterdag,  "  Again  a  day."  in  allu- 
sion to  his  favorite  maxim  that  men  should  bide  their  time,  and 
hope  that  if  one  day  brought  trouble  another  day  would  come  in 
which  a  lost  chance  might  be  recovered,  a  precept  that  certainly 
describes,  if  it  did  not  determine,  his  own  conduct.  The  death,  in 
1374,  of  Henry,  Duke  of  Slesvig,  the  last  direct  descendant  of 
King  Abel,  had  given  Vaklemar  tlie  hope  of  bringing  that  much 
coveted  province  back  to  the  crown  :  but  before  he  could  make 
formal  claim  of  the  duchy  as  a  lapsed  fief,  he  In'mself  died  suddenly 
at  the  age  of  sixty,  AVith  him  ended  tlie  last  direct  male  rep- 
resentative of  the  Vaklemars,  and  thus  the  two  main  branches  of 
the  Svend  F.slridsen  line  of  descent  became  extinct  at  the  same 
time.  Vaklcmar's  only  son  had  (h'ecl  some  years  earlier,  lea\-ing 
no  family,  and  Iiis  nearest  male  heirs  were,  therefore,  the  sons  of 
his  daughter'^.  Ingcborg  and  Alargaret.  Tlie  elder  of  these  i)rin- 
cesscs  liad  married  Count  AIl)ert  of  Mecklen])urg,  and  at  Iier  death 
had  left  a  son,  Albert.     The  younger  of  his  daughters,  Margaret, 


UNION     OF     CALMAR  119 

1375-1387 

had  been  given,  as  we  have  already  seen,  in  marriage  when  quite  a 
child  to  King  Hakon  of  Norway,  the  son  of  Magnus  of  Sweden, 
and  she,  too,  had  a  son,  Olaf, 

'  The  council  of  state  and  the  nobles  were  divided  in  their  opin- 
ions in  regard  to  the  claims  of  the  late  king's  grandsons.  Most 
persons  felt  that  Albert  of  Mecklenburg,  as  the  son  of  the  late  king's 
eldest  daughter,  had  the  best  right  to  the  throne,  but  the  Danes, 
who  detested  all  Germans,  were  especially  distrustful  of  the  Meck- 
lenburg family,  because  of  the  close  alliance  between  those  princes 
and  Denmark's  hereditary  enemies,  the  counts  of  Holstein.  For 
these  reasons,  and  because  the  Danes  had  strong  feelings  of  loyalty 
and  affection  toward  the  young  Queen  Margaret  of  Norway,  they 
passed  over  the  elder  branch  and  gave  the  crown  to  her  son,  Olaf, 
who  was  proclaimed  king  in  the  same  year,  1375.  The  little  prince 
was  only  five  years  old  at  the  time ;  his  parents,  therefore,  Hakon 
and  Margaret,  took  the  oaths  for  him,  and  signed  in  his  name  the 
charter  which  the  nobles  had  exacted  of  Christopher  II,  In  1380, 
with  Hakon's  death,  Norway  and  Denmark  were  again  united 
under  a  single  ruler,  in  the  person  of  Olaf,  whose  regent  was  his 
mother.  Queen  Margaret,  a  woman  of  great  capability  and  infinite 
tact.  This  arrangement  continued  until  Olaf's  death  at  Falsterbo 
in  1387.  _ 

While  Olaf's  heart,  embalmed  in  a  silver  shrine,  was  being 
conveyed  across  the  Sound  to  Denmark,  to  be  deposited  in  the  abbey 
at  Soro,  Albert  the  Elder  of  Sweden  was  already  addressing  an 
appeal  to  the  Danish  people  for  their  support  to  his  pretensions  to 
the  Danish  throne,  as  the  uncle  of  Albert  the  Younger,  the  grand- 
son of  Valdemar  III.  The  Danes,  however,  had  no  ears  for  his 
arguments  and  demands,  but  ten  days  after  Olaf's  burial  the  Thing 
of  Skaania  made  choice  of  "  their  dearly  loved,  high-born  princess 
and  lady  Margaret,  to  be  sole  and  independent  ruler  of  Denmark." 
The  Things  of  the  islands  and  Jutland  joyfully  concurred  in  this 
choice,  declaring  that  they  took  the  unusual  step  of  making  a  woman 
tlieir  ruler,  not  because  she  was  the  nearest  heir  of  her  father, 
Valdemar  III.,  but  because  of  her  well-tried  merit  and  to  her  they 
did  homage  as  to  '  their  true  king  and  master.'  Margaret's  elec- 
tion was,  therefore,  rcmarkal)]c  in  two  ways:  for  the  initiative 
displayed  by  the  provincial  Tilings  in  the  matter  and  because  it 
resulted  in  placing  a  woman  on  tlic  Danish  throne. 

In  the  following  year  the  Norwegians   hjllowed  the  example 


1^0  SCANDINAVIA 

1383 

of  the  Danes,  and  at  the  diet  whicli  met  in  1388  at  Oslo  ^Margaret 
was  proclaimed  Queen  of  Xcjrway,  wliile  at  her  own  behest  her 
sister  Ingeborg-'s  son,  Erik  of  Pomerania,  whom  she  had  already 
adopted,  was  chosen  her  successor.  Altliough  as  long  as  she  lived 
all  power  in  both  kingdoms  rested  in  ^Margaret's  hands,  she  pro- 
fessed to  reign  in  Erik's  name,  during  his  clhldhood,  and,  when 
he  was  declared  of  age,  caused  him  to  take  his  place  at  her  side 
on  the  throne,  and  tried  in  all  ways  to  thrust  him  forward  and  make 
him  appear  the  real  sovereign.  Her  subjects  seem,  however,  to  have 
been  well  aware  that  it  was  to  her  alone  that  they  owed  the  order 
which  prevailed  during  her  reign  in  Denmark  and  Norway.  At 
the  same  time  her  fame  soon  spread  far  beyond  the  northern 
kingdoms.  We  are  told  by  the  writers  of  the  great  Chronicle  of 
Eiibeck  that  "  when  men  saw  the  wisdom  and  strength  that  were 
in  this  royal  lady,  wonder  and  fear  filled  their  hearts.  She  made 
peace  with  old  foes,  and  kept  good  order  over  her  people,  gaining 
to  her  side  both  nobles  and  peasants.  Sh,e  went  from  castle  to 
castle  and  received  the  homage  anrl  faithful  service  of  the  great; 
she  journeyed  from  province  to  province  and  looked  well  into  mat- 
ters of  law  and  right,  until  all  obeyed  and  served  her:  justice  v\"as 
done  in  the  land,  and  e\'en  the  high-born  sca-robijcrs,  who  so 
long  had  plagued  the  kingdom  and  defied  the  laws,  were  filled  v;ith 
terror,  and  were  glad  to  come  forward  and  give  surety  in  money 
for  their  future  good  conduct."  The  writers  of  the  same  chr(niicle 
who  bear  this  testimony  to  ^Margaret's  talents  for  ruling  add  that 
'*  great  marvel  it  is  to  think  that  a  lady,  who.  when  she  began  to 
govern  f(3r  her  son.  founrl  a  troubled  kingdom,  in  wliich  slie  owned 
udt  mr)ney  nor  credit  enough  to  secure  a  meal  without  the  aid  f)f 
friends,  had  made  h.erself  so  feared  and  loved  in  the  short  term  of 
three  months  that  notln'ng  in  all  the  land  v/as  any  longer  withheld 
from  her  and  her  srin." 

While  Denmark  and  Norway  were  thus  enjoying  greater  se- 
curity anrl  '[uiet  than  either  kingdom  had  knov/n  for  many  genera- 
tion-, Swcflcn  contiiuicd  in  an  unsettled  state  un.dcr  .Mbert  tlie  Elder 
of  Mccklenljurg.  Albert,  although  unable  to  govern  ilie  one  king- 
dom that  had  ^o  uncxpcctedlv  been  handed  o\-er  to  him,  was  eager 
to  secure  Denmark  a^  well,  llis  pretensions  we  have  alreadv  men- 
tioned, al-o  the  I'act  that  the  Danes  would  not  listen  to  them.  An 
attempted  iiiwa.-ion  r,f  the  DamVh  kingdom  brought  him  onlv  loss 
and  disgrace,   wherefore  he  concei\ed   the  q-rerUe.-t  hatred   fcjr  the 


UNION     OF     CALM  AR  121 

1389 

successful  iVIargaret,  whom  he  tried  to  bring  into  ridicule  in  every 
possible  way.  Tliis  conduct  on  his  part  ar(Uised  the  royal  lady's 
wrath  and  made  her  quite  ready  to  give  heed  to  those  Swedish 
nobles  who,  soon  after  she  became  ruler  of  Denmark  and  Norway, 
had  besought  her  to  accept  the  crown  of  Sweden,  and  also  to  try  to 
restore  order  in  that  kingdom  as  she  had  done  in  the  other  Scandi- 
navian lands. 

As  soon  as  it  was  known  that  ^Margaret  intended  to  take  pos- 
session of  Sweden,  Albert  raised  an  amiy  of  German  mercenaries 
and  prepared  to  take  the  field  against  her.  The  queen,  in  the  mean- 
while, had  collected  a  large  force  of  Danes,  under  the  command  of 
Ivar  Lykke;  Norwegians,  under  the  knight,  Henrik  Parrow:  and 
Swedes,  under  Erik  Kettlesson,  The  hostile  armies  met  at  Leahy, 
a  little  hamlet  between  P'alkoping  and  Jonkoping,  on  February  24, 
1389.  Here  the  greater  number  of  Albert's  German  troops  were 
cut  down  or  drowned  while  the}'-  were  trying  to  force  their  way 
over  the  morasses,  which  lay  between  them  and  the  queen's  forces. 
Albert  himself  and  his  son,  together  with  many  knights,  were  taken 
captive  before  they  could  effect  their  escape  from  the  boggy  ground 
which  gave  at  every  step  under  their  heavily  weighted  horses,  and 
were  led  directly  into  the  presence  of  the  queen,  who  had  awaited 
the  result  of  the  battle  within  the  castle  of  Bohus. 

The  rhyming  chronicles  of  those  times  relate  that  King  Albert 
had  insulted  the  queen  by  sending  her  a  long  gown  and  an  apron 
with  a  whetstone  to  sharpen  her  needles,  and  liad  spoken  of  her 
as  the  "  unbreeched  king  "  and  "  the  monks'  wife  "  in  allusion  to 
the  favor  which  she  showed  the  prelates.  The  story  continues 
that  when  Albert  fell  into  her  povv-er,  she  avenged  herself  for  these 
insults  by  causing  him  to  be  dressed  in  a  long  gown,  bib.  and  tucker, 
and  by  having  a  fool's  cap  put  on  his  head  with  a  tail  dangling  from 
it  which  was  nineteen  ells  in  length.  Then,  after  getting  her  serv- 
ants to  keep  him  on  the  rack  till  lie  had  promised  to  give  orders  that 
all  the  frontier  castles  should  be  surrendered  to  her,  she  had  him 
and  his  son  shut  up  in  prison  within  the  tower  of  Lindholm  castle, 
where  thev  were  given  seven  years  to  repent  of  their  rudeness. 

Nearly  all  the  castles  of  .Sweden,  w'nich  were  held  by  the  royal 
troops,  opened  their  gates  to  Margaret  without  delay.  Stockholm 
alone  held  out  from  year  to  }enr,  until  at  last  the  queen  agreed  in 
release  her  prisr)ncrs  on  the  paxTncnt  of  a  ransom.  This  was, 
however,  no  mrmifestatinn  of  loyalt}-  on  the  part  of  the  Swedes,  but 


122  SCANDINAVIA 

1389-1397 

was  due  to  the  tenacious  resistance  of  a  band  of  Germans  in  the 
service  of  Albert.  These  men  brought  great  misery  upon  the  sur- 
rounding region  by  engaging  the  aid  of  a  large  number  of  their 
countrymen,  known  as  the  Vitalen  or  VictuaHng  Brotherhood,  be- 
cause their  chief  duty  was  to  keep  the  town  and  fortress  of  Stock- 
holm well  supplied  with  victuals.  This  pillaging  commissariat 
cared  very  little  how  it  performed  its  task  or  how  heavily  it  taxed 
the  poor  country  people  to  furnish  what  was  needed. 

King  Albert  and  his  son,,  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  made 
with  Queen  Margaret  on  their  behalf  by  the  Hanse  Leaguers  and 
other  German  powers,  were  released  in  1395  on  payment  of  60.000 
marks  of  silver.  The  Hansers,  who  advanced  this  sum,  took  Stock- 
holm as  a  security  for  three  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  city 
was  to  be  given  up  to  the  queen  if  the  debts  were  not  yet  discharged. 
It  is  said  that  the  women  of  ]\Iecklenburg  sacrificed  their  gold  and 
silver  ornaments  to  enable  the  deposed  king  to  repay  the  ransom, 
but  Albert,  with  characteristic  unscrupulousness,  spent  the  money 
on  his  own  pleasures  and  left  Stockholm  to  fall  into  ]\Iargaret's 
hands.  In  the  year  1396  she  made  a  solemn  entry  into  the  Swedish 
capital,  accompanied  by  Erik  of  Pomerania,  who  was  presented  to 
the  people  as  their  future  king.  Shortly  afterward  Erik  was  elected 
Margaret's  successor  at  the  ]\Tora  Stone  and  a  year  later  was 
crowned  in  great  state  at  Calmar  by  the  Archbishop  of  Lund  and 
Upsala,  and  proclaimed  King  of  the  three  northern  monarchies. 

"  And  thus."  says  the  chronicler  who  relates  the  circumstance. 
"was  King  Albert  tortured  in  one  night  out  of  his  two  castles  of 
Axewald  and  Rummelberg,  and  would  by  the  like  means  have  been 
robbed  of  a  third,  Orebro,  if  the  governor,  wlio  was  a  German,  had 
not  defied  Queen  ]\rargaret's  power  and  kept  himself  and  his  men 
shut  up  in  the  fort." 

The  date  of  Erik's  coronation  was  Margaret's  birthday,  July 
20,  1397.  One  month  previous  Margaret  had  summoned  an  as- 
sembly of  the  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Norwegian  nobles  and  clergy 
at  Calmar  in  Smaaland.  and  from  this  asseml)]y  liad  issued  tlie 
Calmar  Act  of  L^'nion,  a  famous  document  in  Scandinavian  history 
and  one  regarding  the  validity  of  which  tliere  has  been  much  con- 
troversy; for,  tlioiigh  signed  by  the  queen  and  seventeen  mem- 
bers of  the  councils  of  state  of  the  several  kingdoms,  it  was  but 
imj)erfcctly  published  \(,  tlie  Scandinavian  pennlc.  on  tlic  occasion 
of  Erik's  coronation,     it  is,  therefore,  denounced  In    Swedish  his- 


1397 


UNION     OF     CALIVIAR 


123 


torians  as  a  usurpation  surreptitiously  foisted  upon  the  people  of 
their  nation  with  only  the  merest  color  of  legality.  Says  Geijer:^ 
"  Its  real  contents  were  so  little  known  in  Sweden  that  we  find 
among  the  Swedish  claims  on  Denmark,  in  1435,  ^  demand  that 
Sweden  should  be  correctly  informed  of  the  true  purport  of  the 
Act  of  Union.  Our  old  chroniclers  are  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
first  convention,   and  are  acquainted  only  with   the  more   recent 


United  Scandinavia  ,  circa  i4oo 


V'--- 


forms  it  assumed  in  consequence  of  tlie  alterations  and  renewals 
which  the  conditions  underwent."  The  Act  of  Union  stipulated 
that  the  three  kingdoms,  between  wliich  peace  and  amity  were 
thenceforth  to  prevail,  should  have  one  common  monarch.  Upon 
Erik's  death,  his  son,  or,  if  he  had  more  than  one,  the  same  son, 
should  succeed  him  in  the  three  kingdoms.  If  he  left  only  daughters, 
then  the  existing  laws  should  (Icicrniine  the  succession.  If  he  left  no 
offspring,  then  the  members  of  the  council  of  state  of  the  three 
2  "  History  of  the   Sweden"    (Turner's   Iranslalion,   1845),  vol.   I.,  p.  62. 


124  SCANDINAVIA 

1397-1402 

realms  should  meet  together  "  and  freely  choose  the  person  most 
worthy  of  the  dignity."  Tlie  act  expressly  reserved  to  each  king- 
dom its  laws,  customs,  and  council  of  state.  Otlicr  provisions  of 
the  act  bound  the  three  kingdoms  to  the  alliances  of  each,  deprived 
fugitive  traitors  from  one  kingdom  of  asylum  in  either  of  the 
others,  and  obligated  all  subjects  of  the  Scandinavian  monarch  to 
take  arms  in  the  defense  of  any  one  of  the  three  kingdoms. 

The  project  thus  outlined  is  attractive  in  form  and  idea,  and 
quite  in  harmony  with  the  natural  fitness  of  things.  Fortunate 
it  would  have  been  could  Scandinavia  ha\"e  entered  the  modern 
era  a  single  consolidated  state.  The  scheme  of  Scandinavian  unity 
was,  however,  beset  with  insuperable  difficulties  from  the  outset. 
The  realm  was  too  extensi\'e,  in  those  days  of  crude  methods  of 
transportation,  to  be  readily  traversed  by  the  minions  of  a  central 
authority.  Such  central  authority,  moreover,  though  temporarily 
reali;^ed  in  the  vigorous  personality  of  ]vlargaret.  was  not  })erma- 
nently  guaranteed  in  the  face  of  the  forces  that  feudal  anarchy  was 
able  to  recruit  at  any  moment  in  any  of  the  three  kingdoms, 
l-'inally,  tlie  seeds  of  dissension  were  planted  in  the  act  itself,  in  th.e 
loose  pro\-isions  regarding  the  succession.  Xevertheless.  the 
Union  ()i  Calmar  endured  for  over  a  century  and  a  fjuarter,  and  was, 
during  that  ])erio(l.  ''  a  bulwark  of  sccurit}-  against  foreign  aggres- 
sion," the  end  for  which  ^Margaret,  having  in  mind  particularly 
Germans  and  Hansers  and  foreign  intruders  upon  the  Baltic, 
designed  it. 

After  Erik's  coronation  ^Margaret  endeavored  to  withdraw 
more  and  more  from  the  direction  of  afi'airs.  with  the  idea  of  ac- 
customing Scandina\-ia  to  look  upon  the  }'Oung  king  as  sovereign 
in  fact  as  well  as  name.  In  truth.  howe\-cr.  I'hdk's  incapacity  still 
kejit  her  tlie  power  behind  the  throne,  ^'et  T^rik  was  not  without 
a  certain  kind  of  aijilit}-.  being  most  erudite  and  accomplished  for 
his  age.  His  fatal  deficiency  was  in  good  sense.  TJke  James  T. 
of  Englanrl.  he  was  a  ''  wi.^e  fool."  al)ounding  in  obstinac}-.  conceit, 
and  arrffgancc.  He  also  showed  him.-elf  most  unappreciative  of 
all  that  Margaret  had  dnuc  for  him,  and  committed  several  acts 
of  a'^tonivling  ingratitude  .and  callousness,  the  must  glaring  (;f 
which  wa-.  his  c\ecutir)n.  shortlv  before  tlie  fjueen's  death,  of  her 
old  friend  aiifl  coun-clor.  .Vbraham  I>rodcr.-cn. 

l!ro(]er-en's  death  was  due  to  kirik's  ])i(|ue  at  his  own  lack  of 
success  in  the  war  which  he  was  now  wauinu"  with  IIoEtein.     The 


UNION     OF     CALMAR  125 

1402-1412 

deceased  Count  Gerhard  VI.  of  Holstein  had  also  held  Slesvig 
by  ^Margaret's  concession.  Upon  his  death  in  1402  his  widowed 
Countess  Elizabeth  had  been  compelled  at  first  to  seek  aid  from 
^Margaret  against  her  husband's  brother,  Duke  Ilenrik  of  Osna- 
briick.  Subsequently,  however,  Elizabeth's  apprehensions  lest  Mar- 
garet intended  to  keep  the  Slesvig  strongholds  permanently  gar- 
risoned induced  her  to  make  peace  with  her  brother-in-law,  and  war 
upon  the  Danish  forces  in  Slesvig.  The  war  revealing  Erik's  mili- 
tary incapacity,  -Margaret,  in  the  spring  of  1412,  left  Sjaelland  in 
her  ship  Trinity,  and,  sailing  for  the  coast  of  Slesvig,  invited 
the  Countess  Elizabeth  to  confer  with  her.  The  royal  ladies  agreed 
upon  a  settlement  which  was  looked  upon  as  promising  peace.  Three 
days  afterward  ^Margaret  died. 

"  Death,"  says  a  Swedish  writer,  "  made  an  end  of  Queen 
Margaret's  life,  but  it  could  not  make  an  end  of  her  fame,  which 
will  endure  through  all  ages.  Under  her  hands  the  three  kingdoms 
enjoyed  a  degree  of  strength  and  order,  to  which  they  had  long 
been  strangers  before  her  time,  and  which  neither  of  the  three 
regained  till  long  after  her." 

She  was,  indeed,  a  ruler  of  no  ordinary  caliber.  AMiile  she 
kept  the  nobility  in  leash,  she  did  it  with  such  unerring  tact  as 
never  to  forfeit  their  affection.  She  secured  the  good-will  of  the 
clergy  by  her  wise  liberality  to  the  church  and  her  willingness  to 
heed  reasonable  counsel.  Even  in  combating  the  national  jealous- 
ies of  the  three  kingdoms,  though  her  policy  of  bestowing  offices  of 
trust  in  Sweden  upon  Danes  and  vice  versa  may  be  open  to  question, 
yet  her  capability  and  essential  good  faith  won  the  confidence  of 
Danes,  Swedes,  and  Norwegians  alike. 


Chapter    XI 

A   CENTURY    OF    DANISH    DOMINATION.     141 3-1 500 

S]\IALL  wonder  that  the  withdrawal  of  Marg-aret's  guiding 
hand  was  regarded  with  something-  hke  consternation 
by  all  Scandinavians,  for  by  this  time,  despite  ^Margaret's 
finesse,  the  limitations  of  the  Pomeranian  Erik  had  been  quite  com- 
pletely revealed.  The  fate  that  dogged  Erik's  footsteps  for  over 
a  quarter  of  a  century — nearly  the  entire  period  of  his  reign,  in 
fact — was  the  Elolstein  war.  In  1413  he  summoned  the  three  sons 
of  the  late  Count  Gerhard  to  appear  before  him  at  Xyborg,  not, 
however,  to  do  homage  for  Sles^■ig  in  accordance  with  the  agree- 
ment of  ^largaret  and  the  Countess  Elizabeth,  but  to  rmswer  to  the 
charge  of  having  taken  arms  against  their  feudal  lord.  Their 
fief  in  Slesvig"  was,  therefore,  j'lronounced  lapsed,  despite  the  pro- 
testation of  loyalty  of  Gerhard,  the  eldest  of  the  TTol^tein  princes. 
Though  in  the  struggle  that  ensued  Erik  had  at  liis  back  the  re- 
sources of  the  three  kingdoms,  all  of  which  supported  him  loyally 
for  years,  and  waged  war  uith  the  ruthlessness  of  a  pagan  free- 
booter, he  made  little  headwa^'  against  his  vassals,  wlio  were  secretly 
subsidized  by  neighbcMM'ng  German  princes  and  cities.  In  1418  Lu'ik 
lost  I-"cmern.  but  the  next  year  recovering  it  he  signalized  his  suc- 
cess by  frightful  devastations,  ^^vo  years  later  the  peasantry  of 
the  unfortunate  isk'md  revenged  themselves  at  Tmmerx'ad.  where 
the  royal  forces,  numbering  too.ooo.  were  entirely  routed.  The 
proverb  grew  up:  "At  Inimervad  the  Danes  were  driven  to  the 
de\-il,""  ^  and  the  men  of  I'emern  sar:g: 

"  W'l'.fii  tl'c  cow  in  Ikt  stall 
W  ill   .L;i\c  r.s   flax   Id   spin, 
Thcp.  tlir  Kiiij-j  in  hi--  liall 
-May  li(i];c  fjur  land  to  win!" 

Erik  now,  in  T4-',v  repaired  to  I'tula  to  lay  his  .^ide  of  tlie  case 
before  tlie  l'".mpcvor  Sigi-mund.  jttdgment  was  gi\cn  in  liis  la\-iir 
and  an  order   \',a^   i~-iK-(l   1)\'  tlie   imperial   council   lo   the    Mol>lein 

^  P.    C.    .SuKiiii--:    "lli-!nr_v    of    Scandinas  ia."    ]>.    ifiO. 
12(i 


DANISH     DOMINATION  127 

1420-1435 

princes  to  resign  the  duchy  of  Slesvig-  witliin  a  hmited  time  to 
the  King-  of  Denmark.  But  just  as  he  seemed  to  have  the  whole 
situation  well  in  hand,  instead  of  returning  to  Denmark  and  en- 
forcing the  imperial  verdict,  Erik  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land  with 
a  meager  following  of  forty  men  and  horses.  On  reaching  Venice 
the  master  of  three  realms  found  himself  penniless  and  in  order 
to  continue  to  Jerusalem  liad  to  join  a  Venetian  trader  in  guise  of 
a  serving  man.  The  ill-starred  enterprise  ended  with  his  being 
recognized  and  taken  captive  by  some  Greeks,  who  mulcted  Erik's 
subjects  of  a  good-sized  ransom  before  they  would  give  him  up. 

It  does  not  appear  that  this  v/as  a  particularly  good  investment. 
At  any  rate,  during  his  absence,  Erik's  queen,  Philippa,  daughter 
of  Henry  IV.  of  England,  liad  been  ruling  in  his  stead  vvith  more 
ability  than  he  had  ever  displayed.  Her  principal  achievement  was 
to  bring  the  Scandinavian  coinage  into  temporary  order  and  repute. 
Erik's  return,  however,  resulted  in  recourse  being  promptly  had  to 
the  good  old  policy  of  debasement.  The  Holstein  trouble  also 
again  blazed  forth.  The  Hansers,  who  were  greatly  vexed  at  the 
Sound  tolls  which  Erik  levied  upon  all  vessels  passing  Copenhagen, 
were  now  open  allies  of  the  Holstein  princes.  In  1428  they  at- 
tacked Bergen  in  Norway  with  a  powerful  fleet  and  having  cap- 
tured the  town,  sacked  it.  Copenhagen  was  now  invested,  but  Queen 
Philippa's  courageous  presence,  in  Erik's  absence  in  Sweden,  saved 
the  place.  Afterward  Philippa  met  with  a  reversal  at  -sea.  which 
so  enraged  Erik,  now  returned  to  Denmark,  that  he  struck  her, 
because  of  which  insult  she  retired  to  a  monastery.  Fate  avenged 
her,  for  Erik,  meeting  with  reverse  after  reverse,  in  1435  concluded 
the  Peace  of  Vordingborg,  by  wliich  Adolf  of  Holstein  was  to 
enjoy  the  duchy  of  Slesvig  the  remainder  of  his  life  and  his  suc- 
cessors for  two  years  after  his  death. 

The  Peace  of  Vordingborg  was  necessitated  by  the  situation  in 
Sweden,  Vv-hich  had  risen  in  revf)lt.  weighed  down  by  taxes  and 
burdens  of  all  kinds,  and  badlv  treated  by  King  Erik's  numerous 
functionaries.  The  leader  c)i  tlie  rebels  was  a  Dalesman,  Engel- 
brccht  Engelbrechtsson,  wlio  kindled  the  revolt  in  Dalekarlia  and 
W'cstmannland.  His  ai)|)c,-d  was  respDudcd  to  l)y  large  numbers. 
The  Swedes  liad  good  cruise  for  hatred  of  King  I'^rik,  who  had 
seldom  troubled  liimsclf  to  come  :;mong  tliem.  seemingly  caring 
for  none  ni  his  dominions  execj)!  Il^e  l)anisli  Islriuds,  where  he 
spent  his   ch.ildliood   and   }-f)uth.      3>i(jst  hated   of  his   ofTicers   was 


V2S  S  C  A  N  I)  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1435-1439 

the  roval  baiHlt.  Jo?sen  Ericksscm.  or  Jens  Erichsen.  as  the  Danes 
called  him.  who.  among  otlier  crnel  practices,  if  we  are  to  credit 
the  accusations  brought  against  him,  caused  men  to  be  hung  up 
over  blazing  lircs.  and  women  to  l)e  liarnessed  to  heax'ily  laden 
wagons.  Engelbrecht  drew  up  a  list  of  grievances  setting  forth, 
these  and  the  many  other  wrongs  that  the  Swedish  people  had  suf- 
fered during  the  reign  of  King  lu-ik.  He  then  j^roceeded  with 
his  followers  to  Stockholm  where  he  laid  the  fateful  document  be- 
fore the  council  of  slate,  praying  them  that  they  would  restore 
to  the  kingdcim  its  ancient  rights  and  depose  Tv;ik.  A\'hen  the 
bishops  and  nobles,  who  were  members  ()f  the  council,  bade  him 
bear  in  mind  the  oath  wdiich  he,  as  well  as  they,  had  taken  to  honor 
and  obey  the  king,  Engelbrecht  caught  up  one  of  the  prelates  by 
th.e  neck  arid,  holding  him  otit  of  the  window,  threatened  to  throw 
him  and  all  the  others  down  into  the  armed  crowd  l^ciow  unless 
tlicy  would,  without  further  delay,  accede  to  the  wishes  of  the 
nation. 

The  council  protested  no  further,  but  drawing  up  an  act  of 
deposition,  pronounced  Erik's  Swedish  subjects  absolved  from  all 
allegiance  to  their  faithless  and  negligent  king. 

Eor  the  moment  Erik  found  security  in  the  mutual  distrust 
of  the  nobility  and  the  peasantry.  Thus,  in  1435,  at  the  Diet  of 
Ilolmstadt  the  nobles  solemnly  renewed  their  homage  to  the  king, 
at  the  same  time  sti]:)ulating  that  all  dignitaries  of  the  kingdom,  at 
least  the  governors  of  the  royal  castles  at  Stockholm,  Calmar.  and 
Xykoping  should  be  Sv^-edes  and  in  1436  a  second  diet  reaiJirmcd 
the  Act  of  Union  but  with  conditions  also:  Idie  king*  was  to  ]oass 
four  months  of  each  }ear  in  each  of  his  realms — showing  the  im- 
])ortance  of  this  question  of  residence;  no  war  or  other  common 
cntcr])ri'C  was  to  be  undertak'en  without  the  consen.t  of  the  couiucils 
(>\  ihe  tliTcc  k'ingdoms.  All  this,  howex'er,  was  only  a  tem])nrary 
o'idy  in  the  general  current  of  events.  Within  three  years  hh-ik  liad 
1'  -t  nrjt  only  his  Swedisli  realm,  but  also  those  of  Denmark  imd 
Xi  M'way. 

'Ihe  un'on  < •)  the  ])er)p]e  and  the  nobles  which  \\".'i^  necessary 
bfi-rc  tlic  rc\-(ih  r.i'-ainsi  j'h'ik-  ouid  succeed,  came  ab(>ni  ihnii;gh 
t'.c  nii'i-'lcr  (if  l''ii',;]cbrc'cht  l'jigc'lbreciitss!)n,  the  peasant  leader, 
•  nd  :'!(•  a]/'.  ;a-y  to  tlie  ])Mpiil;ii-  cau.sc  of  Karl  Knuds-on  r.^ntko", 
.''-  Swc'l:':  u  Ji!c  au'l  I'.iik's  own  apnniutee  a.s  mai'-hal  I'f  Swcilen. 
in   the   \car    1.139  ^'i*-'   S\'.cdi.-li   co-mril  (;[  stale  again   ;)!■( -himuiit  1 


D  A  N  1  S  II     D  O  :\1 1  N  A  T  I  O  N  129 

1439-1440 

the  king's  deposition,  and  the  Danish  council  speecHly  followed  suit. 
At  this  moment  King  Erik  was  on  his  way  to  Gotliland,  where  he 
had  intended  to  remain  till  his  councils  of  state  should  submit  to 
his  wishes,  and  declare  his  young  cousin,  Bugislav  of  Pomerania, 
heir  to  the  three  kingdoms.  When,  however,  he  heard  of  the  steps 
which  his  subjects  had  taken  against  him  in  his  absence,  he  pre- 
pared to  return  to  Denmark,  threatening  dire  vengeance.  But  he 
was  not  allowed  to  land  at  a  single  port  in  his  recent  dominions. 
Funds  failing  him,  he  had  recourse  to  piracy,  but  this  turning  out 
badly  he  at  last  retired  to  Pomerania,  there  to  die  in  1459  in  pov- 
erty and  neglect. 

Even  before  Erik's  deposition  had  been  accomplished  the  Dan- 
ish council  of  state  had  offered  the  regency  to  Christopher,  son  of 
Duke  John  of  Bavaria  and  nephew  of  Erik  himself  by  his  only 
sister  Catharine.  The  invitation  to  Christopher,  though  entirely 
the  act  of  the  nobility,  was  nevertheless  at  first  a  popular  one,  for 
the  Bavarian  prince  had  in  earlier  days  often  shown  himself  at  the 
court  of  his  uncle  and  had  won  universal  good-will  by  the  uncon- 
querable cheerfulness  of  manner  which  was  his  chief  tempera- 
mental characteristic.  This  was  in  1438 ;  the  next  year,  the  revolt 
against  Erik  having  succeeded,  Christopher  was  crowned  at  Vi- 
borg  and  there  received  the  homage  of  the  nobles  and  great  clergy. 

His  coronation  discovered  in  Christopher  an  innate  appetite 
for  crowns.  Without  pausing  to  settle  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom 
he  had  just  received,  he  turned  immediately  to  scheme  for  the  rest 
of  the  triple  realm  which  he  pretended  to  believe  was  his  by  the 
Union  of  Calmar.  Yet  there  seemed  initially  little  likelihood  of 
his  success.  Norway  was  for  the  most  part  still  loyal  to  Erik. 
Sweden  favored  the  candidacy  of  Karl  Knuclsson,  Erik's  marshal 
and  regent  in  that  country.  Upon  neither  Norway  nor  Sweden 
did  the  Union  of  Calmar,  even  had  these  kingdoms  given  it  their 
binding  assent,  impose  any  obligation  to  accept  the  arl)itrary  choice 
of  the  Danish  council  of  state.  In  1440  the  Swedish  diet,  con- 
vened at  Arboga,  solemnly  decreed  that  th.e  Union  of  Calmar 
should  never  be  renewed  and  that  no  foreign  king  should  ever 
again  rule  vSweden. 

Christopher,  however,  remained  sanguine,  and  decided  to  use 
di]jlomacy,  a  necessary  ])romisc  coming  easily  to  his  constitutional 
^()<)(]  nature.  The  Swedisli  clerg}'  \\-erc  first  won  over  by  a  pleni- 
tude  of   concession    tiiat    wrolc    Christopher   down    "  llie   bishop's 


i;30  SCANDINAVIA 

1440-144b 

king^  "  in  the  estimation  of  the  bondar,  and  became  valiant  spokes- 
men in  the  canse  they  had  just  come  from  enlistin^s;-  tliemselves 
ai^ainst.  Knaidsson  was  pacified  by  the  (Uichy  of  b^inland  as  an 
lierechta.rv  ilef.  tlie  Ishmd  of  Oeland  for  a  term  of  years;  a  kiri^-e 
sum  of  n:^,^,e^^  by  waA-  of  mdemnity  for  his  exjienditures  as  reg'ent 
of  Sweden;  and  a  written  pri)mise  from  Christopher  tliat  he  sliould 
never  ])e  called  to  account  fnr  such  exi)enditures,  nor  for  any  of 
his  acts  as  ref:^ent.  Ch.ri^topher  was  chosen  King  of  Sweden  in 
1440.  and  two  years  later  Iving  of  Norway.  1 1  is  young  (|ueen, 
Dorothea  of  Brandenburg,  was  crowned  Queen  of  Sweden  in  1446. 
It  was  on  this  occa.^icni  that  Christojdier  signalized  his  alliance  with 
the  clergy  by  pre>i(ling  over  the  hrst  heresy  trial  that  Sweden  had 
ever  witnesserl.  the  victim  of  which,  a  half-witted  peasant,  was 
made  to  do  juibhic  penance  for  his  unconsidered  opinions. 

Christopher's  three  crowns  brought  him  the  due  proportion  of 
uneasiness.  In  IJenniark  a  revolt  had  broken  out  among  the  Jut- 
ish  ])easantr\',  in  fa\'or  of  Erik,  but  really  provoked  by  the  unusual 
exactions  of  the  new  nnonarch.  It  s]:)eedi]y  becacme  tlie  most  for- 
nnidable  and  terril}lc  agrarian  uprising  that  Denmark  had  yet 
experienced.  .\t  one  time  the  ]x.^as<-mt  fcjrces  numbered  35,000 
and  were  cap^ibly  led  by  a  renegade  nobleman,  Ilenrik  'J'agesons. 
The  royal  forces  were  defeated  in  a  battle;  Aeske  Brock,  th.e 
king's  general,  and  tweU'c  n(>blemen  were  ca[)ture(l  and  put  to 
deatli.  .\  jacquerie  now  develi>])e(l:  ever\-\vlicre  tlie  landlords  were 
harried  and  slain,  tlieir  houses  burned,  llieir  lands  a])pr(j])riatetl. 
The  threatened  upheaval  was  finally  averted  by  the  defeat  of  the 
rebels  at  Aagard.  The  j-seasantry  liad  ti>  jiay  the  hated  tithes,  to 
accord  compensation  to  injured  landlMJdcrs,  cand  to  submit  to  even 
greater  exactions  than  those  that  had  prox'oked  die  rc\-()lt. 

In  Sweden  at  this  same  period  was  a  sexere  famine,  and  con- 
sequently nuich  indignation  at  the  la\i>h  waste  of  tlie  court,  which 
sijeiit  inr.cli  of  its  time  at  Stcjckliolm,  and  at  the  o\erfeeding  of  llic 
hor.-e^  in  llie  r-_\-al  siables.  Christopher  \v;is  (lul)bc(l  the  "bark- 
bread  ami  die  "  f-imine  "'  king;  and  a  rumor  -;)read  among  the 
si]])ei-lil  ;Mn-^  tlia'i  a  certain  man,  wIkjsc  piety  enti'deil  to  credence 
anv  ]):■' :])he<-ics  lie  eli^-e  to  venture,  liad  foretold  that  Knudsson 
Vvonld  be  er.\-.  i!c,l  kin-  at  Cp-ala  ;  and  that  a  cliild  ha.d  seen  the 
cr(,\'.n  -parkliiig  mi  I'le  Swedidi  M.'icbedi's  brow.  "The  marshal 
''"ght  n,  Ik  :.wr  l.in'_:,"  drr!;ire(l  tlie  Slockholmer<,  who  remembered 
the  iiand-oiiie   iavwi  u\    die  ex-ieueiit.      "Our  crown   would   better 


DANISH     DOMINATION  131 

1446-1448 

suit  him  than  that  stumpy  little  German!"  "The  Swedes,"  com- 
mented the  good-natured  Christopher,  "  are  a  free-spoken  people." 
Good  nature  had,  however,  its  limit,  especially  in  a  ruler  charged 
with  the  fundamental  duty  of  protecting  his  subjects  from  outrage. 
But  of  this  fact  Christopher  had  not  the  least  appreciation.  On 
one  occasion  a  body  of  Swedish  nobles  came  to  the  Danish  court  at 
Viborg  to  complain  that  the  coasts  of  Sweden  were  being  laid  waste 
by  pirates,  who  were  believed  to  be  in  the  pay  of  the  late  king  and 
to  demand  that  they  should  be  pursued  and  punished  without 
mercy.  "  Well !  "  answered  the  king,  "  it  certainly  is  a  pity  that 
my  uncle  cannot  find  a  more  honest  way  of  getting  his  living,  but 
after  robbing  him  of  his  three  kingdoms,  I  do  not  think  we  ought 
to  be  very  hard  upon  him  if  he  snatches  a  dinner  now  and  then 
without  paying  for  it.  A  man  cannot  live  on  nothing,  you  know !  " 
The  source  of  Christopher's  sympathy  with  Erik  was  not  im- 
probably his  own  impecuniousncss.  Already  he  had  disposed  of 
most  of  the  crown  lands  in  Sweden,  sometimes  to  two  or  more  bid- 
ders, who  w'ere  left  to  settle  betv;cen  themselves  the  question  of 
ownership.  .Vt  the  time  of  his  visit  to  Stockholm  in  1446  he  was 
easily  prevailed  upon  by  Knudsson's  enemies  to  violate  his  pledges 
to  the  nobleman  who  was  now  in  Finland,  and  to  mulct  him 
heavily  on  various  pretexts.  From  this  shabbiness  the  king  de- 
scended next  vear  to  slieer  knaverv.  Taking  a  leaf  out  of  Erik's 
book,  he  dispatched  sliips  to  waylay  Dutch  and  English  trading 
A-esscIs  as  they  passed  through  tb.e  Sound.  A  plan  which  he  put 
in  execution  in  1448  was  equally  villainous,  but  les^s  contemptible. 
On  pretense  of  wishing  to  go  on  a  pilgrimage  to  tlie  church  of  Wils- 
nak  in  Brandenburg,  he  demanded  a  free  passage  for  himself  and 
retinue  through  the  Flanse  towns.  His  real  object,  however,  w^as 
to  attack  and  plunder  the  rich  trading  port  of  Liibeck,  whither  a 
number  of  German  barons  who  were  in  league  with  him  had  as- 
sembled as  if  by  chance,  bringing  witli  tliem  arms  concealed  in 
empty  wine  casks.  The  breaking  out  of  a  fire  in  the  night,  wdiich 
was  mistaken  by  tlie  Danes  .nid  tlieir  fellow-conspirators  for  the 
signal  of  attack,  saved  tlic  city,  I'Or  the  citizens,  on  discovering 
liie  treachery  of  tlicir  guests,  sounded  l!ie  alarm  bells  ^md,  assem- 
bling in  large  numbers,  drove  tlie  strangers  out  and  forced  Chris- 
topher tf)  leave  the  harbor  witli  all  his  siiips  and  men.  On  reaching 
I  lelsingborg  the  king  found  himself  too  ill  to  proceed  further,  and 
after  a  few  days'  suffering  died  from  the  bursting  of  a  malignant 


132  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  A'  I  A 

1448-1450 

tumor,  which  was  attributed,  according  to  the  wont  of  those  times, 
to  poisoning. 

Christopher  died  without  issue.  leaving  the  councils  of  state 
again  confronted  with  the  task  of  discovering  some  prince  of  the 
royal  blood  to  whom  they  might  offer  the  three  crowns.  The  Dan- 
ish council  taking  the  initiative  as  usual,  at  once  fixed  upon  Adolf, 
Duke  of  Holstein,  hoping  that  by  this  choice  they  might  again 
unite  Slesvig  with  Denmark.  But  Duke  Adolf,  who  had  no  chil- 
dren and  loved  his  ease,  refused  the  crown  offered  him.  venturing, 
however,  at  the  same  time,  to  nominate  his  nephew.  Count  Chris- 
tian of  Oldenburg,  who,  like  himself,  could  trace  his  descent  from 
the  old  royal  Danish  house  through  Rikissa,  daughter  of  Erik 
Clipping.  This  nomination  the  Danish  council  at  once  accepted, 
and  the  young  Oldenburg  prince  in  turn  accepted  the  council's 
offer.  3>Ioreover,  Christian,  upon  his  arrival  in  Denmark,  made 
himself  so  highly  agreeable  to  the  young  dowager.  Dorothea,  that 
she  consented  to  their  union,  as  soon  as  her  term  of  mourning 
should  be  done  with.  This  was  a  highly  satisfactory  arrange- 
ment to  the  council  of  state,  as  it  had  already  begun  to  cudgel  its 
brains  over  the  question  of  refunding  Dorothea's  dowry,  which, 
of  course,  had  long  since  been  squandered  by  the  thriftless 
Christopher. 

In  tlie  meantime,  Karl  Knudsson  had  learned  of  his  faithless 
sovereign's  death  and  was  returning  to  Sweden.  In  1449  he  en- 
tered Stockholm  with  a  great  array  of  troops  and  after  a  few 
months  of  riot  and  uproar  was  proclaimed  king  at  the  ?\lora  Stone 
an:id  a  great  tumult  of  popular  approval.  Soon  afterward  he 
was  crowned  with  his  wife  at  Upsala.  The  Norwegians  also 
evinced  a  strong  desire  to  take  Karl  for  their  king  and  sent  mes- 
sengers to  Christian  of  Oldenburg  to  announce  that  they  were  re- 
solved never  again  to  submit  to  be  ruled  by  a  Danish  monarch. 
(  hri-iinn  ])rr,!nptly  took  up  the  chrdlenge,  with  the  result  that  Nor- 
way. ui)f)n  Karl's  coronation  at  Drontheim.  became,  for  the  time. 
the  batllegroTind  of  [he  rival  monarchs.  The  storv  of  the  war  is 
a  somber  tale  of  tlie  l(j(;tings  of  mercenaries  and  the  ignoble  treason 
c>i  leader-.  As  early  as  145(3  the  Norwegian  council  of  slate  trans- 
ferred its  rdlcgianre  io  Clirislian.  The  Act  of  Union  was  renewed 
and  Clir!>ti:in  was  crowned  at  Drontheim. 

(  lirihtian  was  now  able  I0  bring  new  resources  to  bear  against 
Sweden,   where   al-(j   discontent   with    Karl    Knudsson   was   slowly 


DANISH     D  O  ]\I  I  N  A  T  I  O  N  133 

1450-1463 

accumulating,  Karl  invariably  chose  his  officials  from  the  lower 
orders,  which,  of  course,  gave  rise  to  much  bitter  complaining  on 
the  part  of  the  nobility.  He  alienated  the  clergy  by  securing  the 
enactment  of  a  statute  invalidating  deathbed  gifts  to  the  church. 
At  last,  in  1457,  the  archbishop,  Jons  Bengtsson,  having  with 
solemn  state  deposited  his  miter,  staff,  and  pallium  upon  the  high 
altar  of  the  cathedral  of  Upsala,  put  on  his  armor,  took  sword  in 
hand,  and,  advancing  to  the  church  door,  he  posted  tliereon  a 
declaration  of  w^ar  against  the  king.  Karl  made  only  a  faint  at- 
tempt to  resist  the  rebels,  and  finding,  as  the  old  chronicle  of  Olaus 
Petri  says,  that  "  his  primate  was  in  right  good  earnest  and  had 
no  idea  of  playing  at  war,"  embarked  in  haste  and  secrecy  by  night 
with  as  much  gold  and  silver  as  he  could  carry  away  with  him,  and 
betook  himself  to  Dantzig,  where  he  remained  for  seven  years. 

The  Sw^edish  nobles  whom  Karl  had  driven  into  exile  now 
returned.  Stockholm,  always  the  last  bulwark  of  the  royal  power, 
surrendered  w'ithin  a  month  to  the  primate,  though  in  Albert's  time 
it  had  withstood  a  siege  of  se\'en  years.  Bengtsson  now  assumed 
the  title  of  "  Prince  and  Administrator  of  the  Realm."  Not  for 
long,  however,  for  on  June  19,  1457,  Christian  was  crowned  at 
Upsala,  "  and  at  a  congress  of  the  councils  of  all  three  kingdoms 
held  next  year  in  Skara  he  obtained  their  conjoint  guarantee  for 
the  succession  of  his  son."  ^ 

At  first  the  peasants,  against  w'hose  wnshes  Christian  had 
been  made  king,  nevertheless  acquiesced  in  the  arrangement  which 
had  been  effected.  As  the  chronicle  runs,  "  it  first  went  well  with 
the  land  under  King  Christian."  But  presently  the  face  of  affairs 
altered.  "  The  king  began  to  lay  new  taxes  upon  the  country,  and 
all  who  had  any  money  were  obliged  to  lend  him  large  sums,  of 
which  they  received  nothing  back.  .  .  .  [Thus]  he  drew  on 
himself  much  ill-will  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  his  unfriends 
began  to  call  him  a  bottomless  pouch  and  said  that  he  was  a  public 
spoiler,  although  he  was  otherwise  a  pious  and  good-natured  man." 

In  the  year  1463  a  report  was  spread  abroad  that  Karl  was 
about  to  return  from  his  exile.  Immediately  the  bondar  beg'an  ris- 
ing in  great  numbers  all  over  the  country  and  threatened  to  re- 
nounce their  allegiance  to  Christian  unless  their  burdens  were 
removed.  In  order  to  restore  quiet,  the  primate  agreed  to  these 
demands,  which,  however,  so  enraged  Christian  that  he  ordered 
Bengtsson's  arrest  and  catised  llie  words  "  llic  .'irchbislio])  is  a 
-  E.  G.  Gcijcr:   "  History  uf  Sweden,"   vol.   I.  p.  69. 


134.  SCANDINAVIA 

1463-1471 

traitor  "'  to  be  written  in  large  letters  upon  all  the  public  buildings 
and  churches  of  Stockholm.  The  peasants,  on  the  other  hand,  look- 
ing upon  tlie  primate  as  a  martyr  in  their  cause,  immediately  took 
up  arms  and  advanced  toward  the  capital  for  his  rescue.  They  were 
soon  routed  by  the  ^larshal  Thure  Thuresson,  who  gained  for  him- 
self the  naiiic  cf  "  tlie  Peasants'  Butcher,"'  on  account  of  his  great 
severity.  Of  lliuresson  it  was  said  that  he  had  spared  neither  air, 
water,  nor  L'lnd  in  his  thirst  for  gold,  as  he  had  pulled  the  gilt 
wcat!ier-C()ck  from  the  highest  tower  in  Stockholm,  broken  down 
walls,  and  drained  lakes  in  search  of  treasure.  The  peasants  still 
kcjit  up  the  struggle.  In  the  winter  of  1464  Christian  himself 
appeared  at  the  head  of  an  army.  But  the  peasants  of  Dalekarlia 
still  defied  him.  Leading  him  by  false  information  to  advance  into 
a  thick  wood  in  W'estmannland,  they  gave  him  battle,  defeated  him, 
and  f(nTed  him  to  return  to  Denmark  without  having  gained  a 
single  foothold  in  Sweden.  The  shibboleth  of  the  rebels  now  l:)e- 
came :  "  Sweden  is  a  kingdom,  not  a  farm  or  parish  to  be  ruled 
over  by  bailifis.  and  we  will  have  no  Danish  o\'crsccrs  to  plague 
us,  but  a  true-born  Swede  for  our  king.''  The  council  of  state  had 
finally  to  yield  to  the  popular  clamor  and  in  1467  recalled  the  ex- 
iled Karl,  who  retained  his  throne,  this  time  till  his  death,  three 
years  later.  With  his  dying  breath  he  commended  the  government 
of  the  kingdnm  to  his  nephew,  Sten  Sture.  at  the  same  time  ear- 
nestly pra}ing-  him  nc\-cr  to  attempt  to  gain  the  throne  for  himself. 
After  some  hesitation  on  the  ])art  of  the  council  of  state,  Sten  Sture 
was  formally  jrroclaimed  regent  and  marshal  of  Sweden  in  the 
:~pring  of  1471.  Six  months  later  King'-  Christian  I.  of  Denmark 
Landed  near  Stockliolm  with  a  large  army  of  German  mercenaries 
wJK)  b  la.-tcd  of  the  siiame  which  they  would  bring  upon  men  and 
maidens  throughout  the  land,  while  Christian  in  his  contem])t  for 
Sten  .^t'/.rc  ctllcd  him  a  '  conceited  ]mppy,  who  needed  a  sound 
thradiing  to  make  Iiim  know  his  right  place.'  But  the  result  of 
the  da_\  -  l::.':li(  at  Ih■un!^■e])jerg,  \\hcn  Sten  Sirire's  ^\'ife  and  other 
n<il)le  la-la-  I- >■  ilied  d'lwn  from  tlie  castle  walls  on  the  combatants 
b'''"Vv-,  \'. :  -  \ci-y  (I'lTfrciit  fi'i  lUi  what  the  inwaders  had  ex])ected. 
1  heir  (■■  i;i;i\'c  deicai  freed  .Sweden  for  some  vears  from  further 
■''^''<''<-^  "ii  ''he  part  i  m"  the  Danes,  Christian  himself  ne\'er  again 
setting   f'  .'•{   <  iM  S\'.-',-(]!  -Ii  -'.il. 

I  he  (III-"  .iia-lc   wliieli   was  rpioted   with   reference   to  the  cause 
'^f  Sweden'^,  revolt  agaiir-t  Christian    further   recites  that   he   used 


DANISH     DOMINATION  135 

1459-1471 

the  proceeds  of  his  odious  levies  to  buy  "  the  land  of  Holstein 
from  the  Count  of  Schaumburg  and  his  brother  Count  Gerdt."  In 
1459  the  Count-Duke  Adolf  of  Slesvig-ITolstein  dying,  his  numer- 
ous kinsmen  at  once  began  to  dispute  among  themselves  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  his  heritage  should  be  disposed  of.  King  Chris- 
tian sent  troops  into  Slesvig,  and  claimed  the  right  of  resuming 
control  of  the  duchy  on  the  ground  that  as  Count  Adolf  had  died 
without  leaving  any  direct  heirs  in  the  male  line,  the  fief  had 
lapsed.  These  claims,  the  validity  of  which  Sigismund  had  con- 
ceded a  quarter  of  a  century  before,  were  not  disputed,  and  Chris- 
tian had  thus  the  good  fortune  to  recover  without  bloodshed  a 
province  whose  possession  had  for  centuries  been  a  subject  of  dis- 
pute between  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  the  dukes  who  had  held 
it.  Not  satisfied,  however,  with  what  he  had  thus  easily  obtained, 
Christian  desired  also  to  make  himself  master  of  Holstein,  vvhich 
province  was  held  at  the  present  moment  by  its  nobility  and  knight- 
hood, directly  from  the  empire.  Evidently,  therefore.  Christian 
could  not  hope  to  secure  it  unless  he  could  induce  these  vassals  to 
propose  his  investiture  to  the  emperor.  Of  course,  the  individuals 
whose  favor  was  thus  solicited  were  sure  to  make  the  most  of  their 
opportunity,  both  in  a  pecuniary  way  and  to  make  themselves  al- 
most independent  of  their  future  ruler.  The  terms  to  which 
Christian  rinally  agreed  were  that  in  return  for  the  title  of  count  of 
Holstein  the  nobles  and  knights  of  the  province  and  their  heirs 
after  them  should  be  exempt  from  taxation  by  the  Danish  crown, 
and  should  not  be  called  upon  to  give  to  the  kings  of  Denmark  any 
aids  in  money  or  men  except  of  their  own  entire  free  will.  Chris- 
tian also  promised  for  himself  and  all  his  successors  that  the  prov- 
inces of  Holstein  and  Slesvig  should  remain  forever  united,  and 
that  on  his  death  the  electors  should  be  free  to  choose  a  successor 
from  among  any  one  of  his  heirs,  and  were  not  to  be  bound  to 
take  the  next  king  of  Denmark  to  be  count-duke  of  the  united 
provinces. 

The  Danes  were  indignant  when  they  heard  the  terms  on  wln'ch 
the  king  had  gained  the  empty  title  of  ruler  of  Holstein.  and  their 
vexation  was  not  lessened  on  finding  that  they  were  to  be  made 
answerable  for  his  rash  promise  to  pay  off  in  money  all  other 
claims  on  his  uncle's  heritage.  jVmong  other  claimants  were  the 
Count  Otto  of  Scliaumljurg,  tlie  Count  Gerdt.  already  mentioned, 
and    also    tlie    king's    tlnxe    brothers,    who    each    required    40,000 


l;36  SCANDINAVIA 

1471-1481 

llnn'ns.  l(i,£^ether  willi  the  one-third  of  tlie  Oldenburg  and  Dclmen- 
horst  i)atn'monv  of  tlicir  family.  The  Danes,  more  loyal  than  the 
Sweden,  after  much  grumblino-  and  delay  paid  their  portion  of  the 
required  sums  of  money  to  their  king.  But  he.  as  usual,  s])ent  them 
on  his  own  pleasures  and  left  the  poor  Jutlanders  to  be  pillaged  by 
Count  Otto's  troops,  and  to  buy  off  future  attacks  by  heavy  fines. 

Christian,  in  fact,  like  his  predecessor,  was  invariably  in  need 
of  monev.  wherefore,  the  causes  were  many:  an  extravagant  and 
pleasure-loving  court,  profitless  progresses  to  the  imperial  court, 
senseless  journeys  to  Rome  to  solicit  the  aid  of  Pope  or  emperor, 
a  vain  emulation  of  the  ambitious  courses  of  monarchs  to  the  south, 
\\T,r»  in  this  age  were  employed  in  consolidating  and  extending  their 
realms.  Christian  failed  to  recognize  that  the  natural  resources 
of  his  realm,  mucli  less  the  fiscal  constitution  of  his  govern- 
ment, forba.de  imitatii'u  of  France.  In  consequence,  he  was  inveter- 
ately  impecunious,  a  "  Stringless  Purse,''  as  the  Danes  called  him, 
and  was  continually  compelled  not  only  to  extraordinary  levies  that 
in.ipoverislied  his  people  and  to  forced  loans  that  discouraged  thrift, 
but  al^o  to  many  transactions  quite  incompatible  with  the  dignity 
'^f  the  kind  of  monarch  he,  in  his  empty-headed  vanity,  thought 
hiuT^elf.  Thwp,  he  ke])L  back  all  but  2000  florins  of  the  60,000 
florins  which  he  had  Cf)llccted  for  the  dowry  of  his  daughter  Mar- 
garet when  she  married  James  ITT.  of  Scotland  in  1469.  When 
the  councilors  of  the  y(jung  Scottish  king  demanded  the  remain- 
der. Christian  lianded  over  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles  to  be 
lu'ld  in  ])awn— and  there  they  are  to  this  day.  Likewise,  the  funds 
which  tlie  Daiu'>h  clerg}-  \oted.  in  1474,  for  the  foundation  of  the 
I'niversity  (>i  Co])enliagen,  went  astray.  Not  till  1479  was  tlie 
uni\er-;ity  opened  v.nd  e\-cn  tlien  was  so  poorh-  endo\\-ed  as  to  re- 
main greatly  circnm<criT)ed  in  its  acti\-itics  till  the  Reformation. 
"  Silvei-."  a,-;  his  subjects  declared.  "  slipped  through  Christian's 
finq-cr--  li!<c  grain  tlirough  a  sic\'c."  Tlis  neighbors  were  also  aware 
01  this  and  ^])cedil}-  found  that  there  was  almost  no  concession  of 
>ul)-t:!uce  win'cli  the  Da.ui-h  monarch  \\'f)u](l  not  grant  to  those  who 
cor.ld  iuriu-h  luni  the  wherewithal  f(»r  vain  glory.  ]\lost  serious  of 
Mirh  r^ir.ce-irnm  v,-a>  that  to  the  TIanse  Pcague,  whereby  the 
trader^  (U  iiiai  k-ac^uc  v.c'-c  gi\-eu  a  monrjjjol}-  of  the  P)altic  trade 
ami  wvvv  c]']\>'  >wvw(\  1  ,  exclude  Dani-h  vessels  from  Danish  ports. 
What  t".,!!y: 

lii    il'^^i    Ci-riqiau   k.   Iirst  oi'  the  Oldeuburt'-  line,   which   still 


DANISH     D  O  M  I  N  A  T  ION  137 

1481-1497 

holds  the  Danish  throne,  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son 
Hans,  both  as  king  of  Denmark  and  count-diike  of  Slesvig-Hol- 
stein,  though  not  until  Hans  had  assented  to  some  very  hard  terms 
both  in  the  kingdom  and  in  the  united  provinces.  Among  the 
common  people,  however,  Hans  was  a  great  favorite,  preferring 
the  customs  of  the  country  of  his  father's  adoption  and  speaking  its 
language  like  a  native  Dane.  These  characteristics  apparently 
recommended  him  also  to  the  Norwegians,  wlio  having  no  eligible 
native  prince,  made  Hans  their  ruler  soon  after  his  accession  to  the 
Danish  throne. 

Although  Hans  lo\'ed  peace,  the  disturbed  condition  of  his  do- 
minions when  he  came  to  the  throne,  and  the  ambition  of  his 
brother,  drew  him  into  many  wars  during  his  long-  reign.  The 
queen-mother  had  always  shown  great  partiality  for  her  younger 
son.  Prince  Frederick,  who  was  a  German  througli  and  through, 
and,  not  satisfied  with  securing  for  him,  on  the  death  of  Christian. 
a  promise  from  the  nobles  and  prelates  of  Slesvig  and  Holstein 
that  he  should  be  proclaimed  joint  ruler  over  tlie  duchies  with  his 
brother  Hans,  she  obtained  for  him  also  the  right  of  choosing  which 
part  of  Slesvig  he  would  hold  as  his  own.  1die  duchy  had  been 
divided  in  the  year  1480  into  two  parts,  the  Segel^erg  and  the 
Gottorp  lands,  but  after  choosing  the  latter  Frederick  had  grown 
dissatisfied  with  In's  choice  and  been  allowed  by  hJs  brother  to 
change  it  for  the  Segeberg-  portion  of  Slesvig.  This  indulgence 
only  made  him  bolder  in  asking  greater  favors  and  at  last  he 
demanded,  as  a  right,  that  lie  should  be  allowed  to  rule  over  the 
islands  of  Laaland,  Falster,  and  ]\loen  and  be  crowned  joint  king- 
over  Norway.  These  demands  were,  however,  too  extravagant 
even  for  the  indulger.t  Hans.  who.  refusing  to  listen  to  his  brother's 
request,  called  together  a  diet  at  Kallundborg,  and  with  tlie  full 
assent  of  the  members  formally  rejected  Frederick's  pretensions, 
and  threatened  him,  in  case  he  should  ever  renew  them,  with  the  for- 
feiture of  the  lands  which  lie  held  in  Slesvig. 

Prince  Frederick  was  forced  after  this  to  be  more  circum- 
spect in  his  conduct,  but  his  restless,  donn'nant  nature  made  him 
still  the  guiding  mind  of  his  brother's  reign.  Thus  it  was  chieHv 
by  his  persuasions,  but  against  the  advice  of  the  queen-mother, 
that  the  king  resolved  to  gain  the  .Swedish  throne  bv  force.  Tic 
had  for  many  years  conteiiicd  himself  witli  the  jn-nmiscs  of  tlu-- 
vSwcdish  regent  and  his  council  of  state  that  thev  would  olTor  him 


138  SCANDINAVIA 

1497-1500 

the  tlironc  whenever  they  saw  that  the  moment  had  arrived  for 
proclainiinq-  h:>  autliority  in  the  kinci^dom.  Fourteen  years  passed 
without  brinp-inq-  King  Hans  the  crown  lie  coveted  At  last,  losing 
patience,  at  the  instigation  of  Duke  Frederick,  he  led  a  large  army 
of  (icrman  mercenaries  into  Sweden.  lie  easily  defeated  Regent- 
^[ar^llal  Stcn  Sture,  who  had  alienated  the  Swedish  nobility  and 
could  relv  only  upon  the  ])easantry  of  Dalekarlia.  In  1497  the 
Swedish  council  of  state  proclaimed  Hans  king,  both  at  Stockholm 
and  Upsala.  Into  the  former  place  he  made  his  triumphal  entry 
at  the  side  of  Sture  himself.  A  conversation  that  took  place  be- 
tween the  deposed  marshal  and  the  new  monarch  on  this  occasion 
well  reveals  where  the  support  of  each,  the  patriot  leader  and  the 
alien  conqu.eror.  lay.  The  king  asked  Sture  jocosely,  ''  If,  like  a 
faithful  steward,  he  had  prepared  all  things  for  his  masters  com- 
ing." Sture  answered,  pointing  his  finger  at  the  Swedish  nobles 
gathered  round  them,  "  They  can  answer  that  best,  for  they  have 
(lone  all  the  baking  and  brewing  here  to  their  own  liking!  "'  King 
Hans  was  greatly  affronted  bv  Sture's  words  and  answered 
angrily,  "  And  you,  Sten  Sture,  have  in  the  meanwhile  left  me  an 
evil  heritage  in  Sweden,  f(;r  tlie  peasants,  whom  God  made  t(^  be 
our  slaves,  yr^u  have  raised  into  masters,  and  those  \\'ho  ought  to 
be  lords,  you  have  tried  to  enslave.""  On  tlie  other  hand,  we 
should  bear  in  mind  that  Ilans's  contr'.l  of  his  own  realm  of  Den- 
mark depended  upon  his  popularity  v^dth  the  peasantry. 

To  this  statement  there  is  one  exception.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  Ditmarsh.cs.  which  adjoined  the  Holstein  lands,  were  not 
pure  Germans,  but  belonged  to  tho-^e  Frisian  tribes  occupying  the 
nortlnve-tcrn  parts  of  Germanv  and  Holland  and  the  isiands  near 
the  S1c-\igd  lolstein  coasts,  w'.in  were  descended  from  the  ancient 
!ri-ii.  known  in  the  P.rimans  for  their  braverv  anrl  lo\-c  of  freedom, 
d  lie  ^amc  inrle])cn(\Mit  s])irit  had  alwavs  animated  these  people, 
and  thc_\-  h;id  ar^'c  after  age  made  manv  a  gadl.'uit  st.and  against  the 
neighboring  ji^-inccs  N\ho  had  attempterl  to  subdue  them.  Thus, 
although  the  !-",rn]icror  Frederick'  had  formaHv  gi\-en  over  their 
l.-inds  to  Ghri-tKin  I.  of  Denmark  to  be  jriincd  with  the  Holstein 
territory,  ihc  M:iT-l:nien  had  refused  I0  own  themselves  subject  to 
tie  ])o-,>,(T  of  l)c;-,nvM-l-.  And  \^  lie'i  P'riiire  Fre(keriek.  as  Duke  of 
Sle-\ig  IbFiein,  called  u])on  the  I  )it!n;!r:diers  to  ])av  taxes  to  him 
-'"'d  t"  ']•>  li'iinagi-  for  ilieir  knids  iliey  simjily  disregarded  his 
^-uniino)!^. 


DANISH     DOMINATION  139 

1500-150S 

In  the  winter  of  1500  Frederick  induced  his  brother,  the  king, 
to  invade  the  marshes.  The  royal  army,  which  was  commanded 
by  the  king  and  the  Duke  of  Slesvig-Holstein,  was  composed  of 
an  unusually  large  proportion  of  nobles  and  knights,  who  showed 
their  contempt  for  their  peasant  foes  by  going  into  the  attack  clad 
in  their  ordinary  hunting  costumes  and  carrying  only  light  arms. 
Meldorf,  the  chief  town  of  the  marshes,  was  taken  and  sacked  and 
the  inhabitants  killed  with  great  cruelty.  The  invading  army  then 
started  for  Heide  on  the  afternoon  of  a  cold  winter's  day,  when 
they  found  their  advance  checked  by  a  line  of  earthworks  thrown 
up  against  a  dyke  near  Hemmingstedt  and  defended  by  500  Dit- 
marshers  under  their  leader  Wolf  Isebrand.  The  royal  German 
guard  rushed  to  the  attack,  shouting,  "  Back,  churls,  the  guards 
are  coming !  "  and  three  times  forced  the  Marshmen  to  retreat,  but 
they  as  often  rallied.  At  that  moment  the  wind  changed,  bringing 
a  thaw  with  it,  and  as  the  troops  were  struggling  on,  blinded  with 
the  sleet  and  snow  and  benumbed  with  cold,  tlie  sluices  were  sud- 
denly opened  by  the  peasants,  when  the  water,  driven  on  by  the 
rising  tide,  soon  covered  the  marshes  and  swept  everything  before 
it.  Then  the  Ditmarshers,  who  were  accustomed  to  make  their 
way  quickly  through  the  marshes  by  the  aid  of  their  poles  and 
stilts,  threw  themselves  upon  the  invaders  and  cut  them  down  or 
transfixed  them  with  their  long  spears.  Six  thousand  men  perished 
in  this  way,  the  king  and  Duke  Frederick  themselves  only  narrowly 
escaping,  and  an  immense  booty  to  the  value  of  200,000  gulden  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  victors,  also  seven  banners,  one  of  them  the 
Danish  national  standard  Dannebrog,  which  was  carried  in  tri- 
umph to  Oldenworden  and  hung  up  in  the  church  as  the  supreme 
trophy  of  the  victory. 

Hans's  disaster  in  the  marshes  lost  him  Sweden  and  threatened 
his  control  of  Norway.  This  time  Sten  Sture  had  the  support  of 
the  Swedish  nobles.  Moreover,  a  general  detestation  of  Danish 
rule  existed  in  all  parts  of  Sweden  and  among  all  classes.  The 
sudden  death  of  the  Marshal  Sten  Sture,  in  1503,  was  ascribed  to 
poison,  administered,  it  was  alleged,  by  the  order  of  Prince  Fred- 
erick, and  this  occurrence  greatly  aggravated  the  bitterness  of  the 
Swedish  attitude.  When  Hemming  Gade,  Bishop  of  Linkoping, 
addressed  the  people  at  Upsala  after  Sten  Sture's  death,  he  con- 
cluded his  speech  with  these  words :  "  Tlie  Danes  are  a  nation  of 
murderers  and  thieves  and  have  been  so  from  all  time,  but  let  us 


140  SCANDINAVIA 

1503-1518 

not  despair,  for  the  Almighty,  who  has  saved  seven  parishes  in  the 
l^itmarshes  ivom  their  hands,  will  not  fail  to  rescue  a  whc^le  king- 
dom !  "  1  ians  appealed  to  bcjtli  emperor  and  Pope  to  punish  the 
rebels,  but  being  unable  to  back  up  their  anathemas  and  fulmina- 
tions  with  physical  force  of  his  own,  he  was  soon  compelled  to 
resign  his  Swedish  crown,  which  he  never  attempted  to  regain. 

At  the  death  of  Sten  Sture,  in  1503,  his  adopted  heir,  Svante 
Sture.  was  in  accordance  with  his  father's  wishes  made  marshal 
and  regent  of  Sweden.  This  knight  w'as  of  a  daring,  frank  nature. 
and  it  was  said  of  him  that  he  w^ould  take  no  man  into  his  service 
who  winked  at  the  stroke  of  a  battleax,  and  that  he  w'oukl  rather 
strij)  his  coat  off  his  back  than  leave  a  friend  and  brother-warrior 
unrewarded.  He  cared  more  for  his  soldiers  than  for  any  other 
class  of  the  nation,  and  as  long  as  he  governed  Sweden  there  was 
nothing  but  war.  He  and  Hemming  Gade.  who  may  be  said  to 
have  ruled  the  land  between  them,  seemed  only  to  think  how  they 
might  display  their  hatred  toward  Denmark,  and  although  during 
this  time  there  were  constant  meetings  between  the  nobles  of  the 
two  countries  to  settle  their  differences,  neither  people  had  any 
rest  frcjm  the  hostile  and  ])iratical  attacks  of  the  other.  The  Hanse 
traders  sided  sometimes  with  the  one  and  sometimes  with  the 
other  party.  Thus,  in  1512,  the  Liibeckers.  aggrieved  at  some 
concessions  by  Hans  to  Juiglish  mercliants.  allied  themselves  with 
the  Swedes  and  fell  upon  the  Danish  ileet  without  warning.  The 
Danish  admirals,  Soren  Xorby  and  Otte  Rud.  however,  gave  their 
assailants  such  a  thorough  drubbing,  that  they  were  glad  to  get 
off  by  consenting  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  30,000  gulden. 

That  same  year  Svante  of  Sweden  died  and  was  succeeded  by 
Sten  Sture,  "  the  ^^ounger."  The  following  year  Hans  died. 
bringing  his  son  Christian  H.  to  the  Danish  throne.  Sten  was  the 
noblest  and  best  of  the  Sture  race,  and  his  efforts  to  reliexe  the 
])eoj)k-  as  far  as  he  could  from  the  t;ixes  which  weighed  so  hca\"!ly 
n]joii  thern,  rmd  his  gallant  attempts  to  secure  the  freedom  of  the 
country,  endeared  him  very  greatlv  to  the  .Sweiles.  In  151S  he 
defc-atcd  the  army  which  Christian  H.  had  brought  before  the  walls 
(tf  Stockholm.  After  the  battle  Christian  sought  an  interview  with 
the  regent,  and  demanded  that  se\'eral  Swedish  hostages  should 
be  -ent  on  bi'arfl  a  Danish  ship  of  \var  lo  remain  there  until  he  had 
returned  in  ^afety  fnMu  the  meeting.  d"he  regent  agreed  to  this, 
and    made   eli')ice  by   their  own   consent   of   the   bishop.    Hemming 


DANISH     n  O  iVI  1  N  A  T  I  0  N  141 

1518-1520 

Gade,  and  five  other  persons  of  noble  birth,  one  of  whom  was  young 
Gnstaf  Eriksson  Vasa,  who  had  served  in  tlie  recent  war  and 
borne  the  royal  standard  of  Sweden  in  the  battle  of  Stockholm. 
While  the  conference  between  the  king  and  regent  was  going  on, 
the  Danish  ship,  at  tlie  king's  orders,  weighed  anchor  and  sailed 
to  Denmark,  where  the  hostages  were  kept  in  prison  on  pretense 
that  they  were  rebels.  At  the  same  time,  Christian,  returning  to 
Copenhagen,  induced  the  Pope  to  issue  a  bull  laying  Sweden  under 
interdict  and  excommunicating  Sten  Sture  and  all  who  sided  with 
him.  A  Danish  army  under  the  command  of  Otte  Krumpe  was 
sent  into  Sweden  with  orders  to  affix  to  all  church  doors  through 
the  land  copies  of  these  papal  decrees.  The  Danes  were  defeated 
with  great  loss  on  the  Aase  Sound,  but  Sten  Sture's  death,  in 
1520,  placed  the  kingdom  completely  at  the  mercy  of  the  Danish 
monarch. 

At  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  Denmark  comprised  Jut- 
land, the  islands  lying  between  Sweden  and  Denmark,  Ilalland, 
Bleking,  and  Skaania  on  the  Swedish  coast,  the  greater  part  of 
Slesvig-Holstein,  though  the  latter  of  these  duchies  was  held  per- 
sonally by  the  Danish  sovereign  in  fief  from  the  empire,  and  Nor- 
way. The  population  of  this  realm  was  about  1,500,000.  The 
great  majority  of  these  folk  were  Danish.  Holstein,  however,  was 
entirely  German,  and  in  the  interval  between  the  transfer  of 
Slesvig  to  the  counts  of  Holstein  and  Christian  I.'s  resumption  of 
the  overlordship  of  both  duchies — 1386- 1460 — the  process  of  Ger- 
manizing Slesvig  had  gone  on  with  rapidity,  and,  indeed,  did  not 
cease  at  the  latter  date. 

German  influence  was  not  confined,  however,  to  Slesvig- 
Holstein.  It  was  rampant  throughout  Denmark  itself  in  the  fif- 
teenth century.  In  Erik  of  Pomerania,  Clu-istopher  of  Bavaria, 
and  Christian  of  Oldenburg,  Denmark  had  three  German  mon- 
archs,  the  latter  of  whom  was  unable  to  speak  the  Danish  tongue 
and  ostentatiously  flouted  Danish  customs.  The  unpatriotic  ex- 
ample of  the  monarch  was  eagerly  followed  by  a  nobility  anx- 
ious to  emphasize  its  superiority  to  the  general  population.  The 
Danish  court  was  crowded  with  German  courtiers  or  courtiers 
who  had  received  their  education  in  Germany.  It  was  the  Ger- 
man mercenary  rather  than  the  Danish  trooper  who  made  Danish 
rule  seem  alien  and  orlious  to  tlie  Swedes.  Danish  public  institu- 
tions were  both  consciously  and  unconsciously  modeled  after  those 


142  SCANDINAVIA 

1500-1520 

of  Germany,  whence  came  not  only  the  forms,  but  even  the  nomen- 
clature of  Danish  feudalism  and  serfdom. 

In  the  hands  of  foreii^n  princes  the  decline  of  the  royal  power 
continued.  Hans's  concessions  to  the  nobility  in  1481  made  the 
council  of  state  the  sovereign  authority  of  the  state.  The  aggran- 
dizements of  the  clergy  also  continued.  The  church  in  1500  held 
probably  one-half  the  wealth  of  the  realm,  all  of  which  vast  hold- 
ings were  entirely  exempt  from  any  service  to  the  king.  The 
domination  of  both  clergy  and  nobility  over  the  peasantry  was 
most  oppressive.  All  these  dreary  features  had,  however,  their 
element  of  hope  and  their  promise  of  betterment.  The  weakness 
of  the  monardi  before  the  great  orders  of  clergy  and  nobility  made 
him  look  to  the  peasantry  for  support ;  the  nobility's  affectation 
of  German  speech  and  German  habit  furnished  the  political  move- 
ment with  a  patriotic  motive ;  the  corruption  of  the  clergy  offered 
the  new  forces  a  definite  enterprise,  at  once  remunerative,  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  wealth  of  the  church,  and  patriotic.  Upon  the 
basis  of  the  Reformation  both  tlie  national  church  and  the  national 
monarchy  of  Denmark  were  to  be  established. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  that  the  future  held  in  store  much  of 
good  for  Denmark,  the  age  of  her  jn-edominance  in  Scandinavia 
was  at  an  end,  with  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the 
mantle  of  her  leadership  in  the  north  about  to  descend  upon 
Sweden. 

vSweden  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  comprised  Gothland ; 
vSvealand,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  western  limits  of  Dalekarlia ; 
f  lelsingcland ;  an  indefinite  region  in  Lajjland,  into  which  Swedish 
colonics  were  regularly  proceeding;  as  also  tliey  were  into  Finland. 
Swedish  sway  over  which  stopped  at  the  western  boundaries  of 
l\\rialc'lan(l ;  Kslhonia,  conquered  in  the  time  of  Boijer  Jarl,  had 
been  lost  in  1346;  Ilalland,  Skaania,  and  Jjleking  were  still  Dan- 
i-!i.  Scattered  over  this  vast  area,  in  1500,  there  were  ])robal)ly 
fewer  than  f^)nc-half  million  people,  but  tlie  jiojmlation  was  rapidly 
increasing  in  certain  regions,  particularly  in  Dalekarlia,  whose 
mines  were  jn^t  being  o])encd  up.  Towns  were  few  and  um'm- 
portant.  "  Tn  llie  interior  of  the  country,  where  they  sprang  up 
on  tlie  sites  of  ancient  fairs;  or  at  episcopal  seats,  many  of  the 
condiiioiis  rc'(jnirc(l  for  their  ])rosperity  were  wanting.  \Visby, 
in  Gothland,  was  for  a  long  time  rich  and  ])owerful,  but  might 
rather  have  been  called  a  German  than  a  Swedish  town,  and  in  all 


DANISH     DOMINATION  143 

1500-1520 

German  burghers  were  so  numerous  that  down  to  1470  one-half 
of  the  town  magistrates  were  taken  from  among  them."  ^  This 
was  due,  of  course,  to  the  proximity  of  the  main  seat  of  the  Hanse 
League,  to  which,  as  we  have  already  seen,  certain  Swedish  mon- 
archs  like  their  Danish  contemporaries  made  many  spendthrift  con- 
cessions. The  promise  of  Sweden's  position  with  reference  to  the 
Baltic  trade  was,  however,  one  of  the  first  facts  to  obtrude  itself 
upon  the  minds  of  her  patriotic  rulers  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
With  the  extension  of  their  realm  over  the  Sound  lands  and  the 
development  of  Swedish  resources  under  their  almost  personal 
supervision,  Sweden  was  destined  to  develop  a  commerce  that  long 
supported  the  great  role  she  essayed  on  the  Continent. 

But  the  most  important  reason  for  Sweden's  relatively  sud- 
den elevation  into  European  prominence  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
apart  from  the  opportunit}^  created  by  the  Lutheran  Reformation, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  superior  political  situation  of  the  Swedish 
people  at  the  opening  of  that  century.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
era  of  the  Folkungar,  the  Swedish  nobility  was  in  rapid  process 
of  transition  from  its  ancient  character  of  an  order  of  local  mag- 
nates to  that  of  a  feudal  nobility:  the  old  nobility  of  birth,  based 
on  real  or  fictional  kindred  with  the  king,  is  superseded  in  the 
legisation  of  Magnus  Ladulaas  by  a  nobility  of  service  to  the  king. 
Of  course,  even  the  ancient  nobility  had  to  a  degree  been  a  nobility 
of  service,  and  its  members  had,  in  time  of  war,  comprised  a 
brotherhood  of  arms  with  the  king;  but  the  importance  thus 
achieved  was  prevented  from  becoming  the  basis  of  an  authority 
that  might  threaten  popular  rights  by  the  popular  elective  judi- 
ciary— which  thus  takes  on  a  tribunicial  character.  The  new  nobil- 
ity of  the  Folkungar,  on  the  other  hand,  inevitably  took  its  con- 
stitution from  the  feudal  age  in  which  it  arose.  Its  members  arc 
vassals  to  the  king;  their  services  are  largely  military;  their  reward 
is  a  territorial  fief,  to  whose  inhabitants  the  vassal  stands,  not  merely 
in  the  relation  of  landlord,  but  also  of  judge  and  royal  representa- 
tive. What  was  to  prevent  the  peasantry  of  Sweden  from  going 
the  way  that  the  Danish  peasantry  had  gone  a  century  earlier; 
from  passing  from  loss  of  political  power  to  loss  of  all  freedom  of 
property  and  person,  and  sinking  into  absolute  serfdom? 

Yet  this  did  not  come  about.  "  No  one  can  deny,"  says 
Ccijcr,  "  that  the  pcojjle  of  Sweden  best  withstood  that  trial  in 
which  Norway  lost  its  ])r)litical  independence  and  Denmark  the 
•''Geijcr:  "History  of  Sweden,"  vol.  I.  p.  88. 


lU  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  V  I  A 

1500-1520 

freedom  of  its  people."  It  is  true  that  the  Swedish  monarchy  of 
the  fourteenth  century  was  preeminently  a  feudal  monarchy ;  that 
it  was  characterized  by  the  ascendency  of  a  military  and  clerical 
oligarcliy,  which,  where  the  law  opposed  its  aggrandizements, 
often  trampled  under  foot  the  behests  of  the  law.  and  which,  as 
for  instance  at  Skara  in  1332,  confederated  itself  for  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  people  from  their  customary  participation  in  the  affairs 
of  the  realm.  Also,  it  is  true  that  the  Calmar  Recess  of  1483, 
which  says  "  that  every  good  man,  clerical  or  laic,  shall  be  king 
over  his  own  dependents,  except  in  matters  which  by  law  are  com- 
mitted to  the  sovereign.''  presents,  to  all  appearance,  the  picture 
of  a  com])letcly  feudalized  state.  Nevertheless,  the  two  great 
events  of  Swedish  history  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
7'/.cr.,  the  revolts  against  Danish  power,  headed  by  Engelbrecht 
Engelbrechtsson  and  by  the  Stures,  were  essentially  popular 
movements. 

It  should  be  noted  in  what  sort  of  enterprise  Engelbrecht  and 
the  Stures  were  engaged.  They  were  resisting  an  alien  dominaticMi, 
foi>ted  upon  vSweden  by  the  Union  of  Calmar.  Yet  because  it  was 
an  alien  domination,  which  meant  absentee  rule,  the  Swedish  no- 
bility preferred  it  to  that  of  a  Swedish  monarch.  Conse(|uently  we 
find  Engelbrecht  and  the  Stures  doing  their  utmost  to  effect  a 
restoration  of  popular  forces  in  the  realm.  The  people  of  Sweden, 
its  yeomanry,  had  never  lost  their  voice  in  the  election  of  a  king. 
In  all  the  writs  issued  for  elective  diets  during  the  union  are  mem- 
tioned,  "bishops,  clerks,  nobles,  franklins  (fralse),  burghers,  and 
tlie  common  yeomanry."'  With  the  revival  of  the  ancient  associa- 
tions of  yeomanry  by  Engelbrecht  and  the  Stures,  this  right  of 
rc])resentation  was  c^nce  more  rendered  effective:  not  merely  for 
tlic  purjiovc  of  choosing  a  ruler,  however,  but  for  all  the  purposes 
(>\  a  diet  ol  estates,  which  now  indeed  arose. 

In  the  work  that  tliev  did  in  reanimating  and  reorganizing 
the  ])(ipnlar  forces  of  the  Swedish  ci  in--titntion.  hjigelbrecht  .and 
the  .^turc^  ])a\-e(l  tlie  \va\-  for  Cnstaxais  \'a>a,  the  real  founder  of 
tlic  new  .Swedir^h  nionarchv,  which  gave  Sweden  its  "Glorious 
i:])Och." 


PART  III 

THE  PERIOD   OF  ABSOLUTE  MONARCHY 

1520-1771 


Chapter  XII 

GUSTAVUS  VASA  AND  THE  SWEDISH  REVOLUTION 

1520-1560 

CHRISTIAN  11,  of  Denmark,  the  only  son  of  King-  Hans 
and  his  queen,  Christina  of  Saxony,  was  born  at  Nyborg 
in  1 48 1.  As  a  prince  he  received  a  remarkable  upbring-- 
ing,  considering  the  fact  that  he  had  been  early  crowned  joint  king 
with,  and  snccessor  to,  his  father,  and  was  looked  upon  by  most 
Danes  as  the  rightful  heir  to  the  thrones  of  Norway  and  Sweden 
as  well  as  to  that  of  Denmark. 

The  king  and  queen,  who  were  often  absent  on  long  journeys 
to  the  different  provinces  of  their  kingdoms,  in  order  to  provide  for 
their  small  son  during  these  frequent  absences  from  the  Danish 
capital,  removed  him  from  the  court  and  the  care  of  their  own 
attendants,  and  placed  him  in  the  house  of  a  tradesman  of  Copen- 
hagen, named  Hans  Metzenheim  Bogbinder,  who,  however,  was 
a  man  of  standing-  in  the  city,  a  burgomaster  and  councilor  of 
state.  Subsequently  the  king-  placed  Christian  in  the  hands  of  the 
Canon  George  Hinze,  wlio,  finding  that  he  could  not  trust  his 
vivacious  ward  out  of  his  sight,  kept  him  invariably  with  him,  even 
when  engaged  in  religious  devotions.  As  Christian  had  a  good 
ear  for  music,  and  a  fine  voice,  the  heir  to  the  three  kingdoms  was 
soon  singing  in  every  choir  in  Copenhagen,  much  to  the  scandal 
of  his  royal  parent  when  he  learned  of  it.  The  king  next  applied 
to  his  kinsman,  the  Elector  Joachim  of  Brandenburg-,  to  send  to 
Denmark  a  tutor,  at  once  learned  and  stern  in  the  management  of 
unruly  youngsters.  The  erudite  Master  Conrad,  whom  Joachim 
presently  dispatched  to  Denmark,  fully  answered  tliesc  require- 
ments, and  from  him  Christian  is  declared  to  have  acquired  a  fluency 
in  Latin  equal  to  that  of  any  university  professor  of  the  times. 
But  his  love  of  fun  remained  irrepressible,  and  there  is  a  story  to 
tlie  effect  that  when  the  king,  who  was  a  firm  believer  in  Solo- 
mon's precept  about  tlie  rod,  found  that  his  son  was  in  the  habit  of 
bribing  the  palace  watch  to  let  him  pass  freely  in  and  out,  to  join 

147 


148  SCANDINAVIA 

1501 -1520 

in  the  amusements  of  the  citizens,  he  used  a  horsewhip  so  sharply 
on  Christian's  back  and  shoulders  as  to  force  him  to  his  knees  and 
to  a  promise  of  amendment. 

In  1 50 1  Hans  sent  Prince  Christian  into  Norway  as  inde- 
pendent governor,  or  viceroy,  of  that  kingdom,  there  to  fulfill  his 
apprenticeship  in  the  art  of  government. 

Tt  was  in  Norway  that  Christian  first  displayed  the  resolution 
of  which  he  was  capable,  but  which,  unfortunately,  was  often 
tinged  with  cruelty.  For  although  he  ^vas  only  twenty  years  old 
at  the  time,  he  put  down  every  attempt  at  rebellion  with  such  dis- 
patch and  sternness  that  in  a  short  time  almost  every  Norwegian 
noble  or  knight  of  eminence  had  been  either  killed  or  banished.  He 
seems,  in  fact,  from  his  boyhood  to  have  had  a  hatred  of  the 
nobility  generally,  which  he  may  have  imbibed  from  his  burgher 
guardian,  to  have  avoided  their  society,  and  to  have  chosen  his 
friends,  as  later  he  did  his  officers,  from  among  the  lower  classes. 

He  was  still  further  estranged  from  the  higher  orders  by  the 
hard  terms  which  the  council  of  state  imposed  upon  him  as  the 
})rice  of  his  succession  in  15 13.  He  had  to  surrender  his  judicial 
power  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  nobility,  to  resign  his  right 
to  confer  nobility,  and  to  make  other  concession?,  the  total  effect  of 
which  was  to  leave  him  practically  no  prerogative.  Christian  affixed 
his  name  to  the  so-called  charter  without  murmur,  because  he  knew 
that  thus  only  could  he  secure  the  crown,  and  als(T  because  he  was 
determined  to  treat  the  whole  thing  as  a  dead  letter,  as  soon  as 
the  cr)urse  of  events  would  permit. 

Christian,  however,  decided  to  make  the  crown  of  Sweden 
the  first  object  of  his  ambition.  His  cause  was  supported  by  Gus- 
t;if  rrolle,  the  ]:)rimate  of  Upsala.  and  many  others  belonging  to 
ilie  ancient  Swedish  nobility,  who.  in  their  jealousy  of  the  power 
(.•iiioycd  1)}-  the  Sture  family,  were  desirous,  as  of  yore,  of  an  alien 
and  absentee  sovereign.  But  the  greater  number  of  Swedes  were 
•  Icvotcd  {('  Sten  Sture  the  younger,  and  from  the  moment  of  King 
ilrui-^'s  death  showed  verv  clearly  that  they  would  never  submit 
willingly  to  the  renewal  of  llanish  rule.  During  the  war  which 
^' on  bri  i!.;e  out  between  Sture  and  the  archbishop's  party.  Chris- 
tian ^cnt  his  armies  year  after  year  into  the  country,  but  gained  no 
]•  :i >\])i >]i\  there  till  i^Jd.  That  year,  as  we  ha\-e  seen,  his  general, 
<' )Uc  |\ruiri]>c.  in.;;]-c!iing  alnng  the  frnzen  streams  and  lakes.  ga\-e 
llic  Swede-i  battle  on  the  ice    at  Aasund.  in  \\'e>t  Cjothland.     Hie 


SWEDISH     REVOLUTION  149 

1520 

Swedish  army,  taken  unawares,  was  defeated  and  later  dispersed, 
^vhen  it  became  known  that  Sten  Sture  was  dead.  Store's  widow, 
however,  closed  the  gates  of  Stockholm  against  the  Danes  until 
treachery  on  the  part  of  the  townspeople  forced  her  to  submit, 
when  by  the  help  of  the  Swedish  bishops  Christian  was  able  to 
make  himself  master  of  the  throne  he  had  been  so  eager  to  obtain. 

In  the  autumn  of  1520  Christian  was  crowned  at  Stockholm 
witii  great  pomp.  All  the  Swedes  who  took  part  in  the  festivities 
held  in  honor  of  the  coronation  were  charmed  by  the  seeming 
graciousness  and  affability  of  the  new  king.  At  the  very  moment, 
however,  when  the  Swedish  nobles  were  congratulating  themselves, 
the  king's  chief  ofificers  of  state,  the  Westphalian,  Didrik  Slaghoek, 
and  Jens  Beldenak,  bishop  of  Odense,  stepped  forward  before 
Christian,  seated  in  the  midst  of  his  court,  and  in  the  name  of  the 
primate,  Gustaf  Trolle,  demanded  reparation  for  the  wrongs  which 
it  was  pretended  the  archbishop  had  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Sten 
Sture  the  younger,  and  his  councilors.  Christian,  on  pretense  of 
upholding  the  dignity  of  the  church,  recjuired  to  know  the  names 
of  all  who  had  signed  the  act  of  deposition,  which,  as  he  well 
knew,  had  been  passed  in  consequence  of  the  primate's  treason  of 
former  years.  The  document  was  produced,  and  all  vvhose  names 
were  attached  to  it  were  arrested  on  the  spot,  although  it  was 
shown  that  they  had  acted  merely  in  conformity  with  tlie  orders 
of  the  national  diet.  The  next  morning  the  prisoners  were  brought 
before  a  court,  composed  of  twelve  ecclesiastics,  who  were  all 
Swedes  excepting  Beldenak,  and  were  asked  one  question  only: 
whether  men  who  raised  their  hands  against  the  Pope  and  the  Holy 
Roman  Church  were  heretics?  Forced  to  reply  in  the  affirmative, 
they  were  told  that  they  had  passed  judgment  of  death  upon 
themselves. 

At  noon  on  the  same  day.  November  8,  1520,  ninety  persons, 
belonging  chiefly  to  the  nobility,  but  including  a  few  burghers, 
were  led  forth  into  the  great  market  place  of  .Stockholm,  where, 
closely  guarded  by  Danish  troops,  they  were  beheaded  one  by  one 
before  the  eyes  of  the  terror-stricken  citizens.  The  first  who  suffered 
was  Bishop  ]\Iads  of  Strangnas,  who,  as  the  ax  was  falling,  cried 
aloud,  "The  king  is  a  traitor,  and  God  will  avenge  this  wrong!" 
When  Erik  Johansson  Vasa,  the  father  of  future  kings  of  Sweden, 
was  led  out,  a  messenger  from  Christian  came  to  him  to  offer  him 
l)ardon  and  grace.      "  Xo,"  he  cried,   "  lor  God's  sake,  let  me  die 


150  SCANDINAVIA 

1520 

with  all  these  honest  men,  my  brethren!  "  and  he,  too,  laid  his  heac 
upon  the  block 

A  heavy  storm  of  rain  began  falling  at  the  close  of  this  fright- 
ful butchery,  and  the  blood  streamed  along  the  streets,  and  gurgled 
and  splashed  up  from  the  muddy  market  place.  Christian,  turning 
his  back  on  the  ghastly  spectacle,  left  Stockholm  in  full  confidence 
that  nothing  would  hinder  the  scheme  he  had  nearest  to  heart, 
namely,  the  restoration  of  the  bourgeoisie  and  peasantry  to  the  posi- 
tion of  mainstays  of  the  monarchy,  such  as  they  had  been  in  olden 
times.  \i  Jonkoping  he  ordered  the  ca]itain  of  the  castle  to  be 
executed,  together  with  his  children,  and  at  Xysala  he  caused  the 
abbot  and  a  number  of  his  servitors  to  be  drowned.  The  lov.cr 
orders,  however,  saw  only  the  horror  of  these  deeds  and  felt  only 
fear  and  hatred  for  the  man  who  had  planned  them,  and  who  was 
known  henceforth  simply  as  "  The  Tyrant." 

It  has  been  well  said  that  the  "  Union  of  Calmar  was  drowned 
in  the  blood  bath  "  of  November  8,  1520,  for  from  that  day  till 
the  spring  of  1523,  when  Gustaf  Vasa  was  crowned  king  of 
Sweden,  the  Swedes  never  abated  from  their  dctermmation  to  re- 
lease themselves  from  their  Danish  bonds. 

C/Ustaf  ]u"iksson  Vasa,  who  was  l)orn  in  J^()f^,  was  tlie  son  of 
Erik  Johansson,  one  of  tlie  victims  in  the  bl.ood  bath  of  Stockholm, 
and  had  been  made  captive  and  carried  to  Denmark  by  the  orders 
of  Christi;in  when  he  came  into  the  laltcr's  custo'iy  as  a  hostage. 
This  king,  known  tc)  foreigners  as  Gusta\'us,  was  called  (Instaf 
by  his  own  countrvmen.  The  name  Vasa  was  nc\'cr  used  by 
Gustaf  himself,  nor  had  it  belonged  to  any  oi  his  ancestors, 
surnames  nrjt  having  been  ado])tcd  bv  the  Swc^.lish  r]o])lcs  at  that 
])eriod.  .Some  writers  have  derived  the  name  from  the  estate  of 
Vasa  in  Ujjlaufl ;  l)ut  others,  with  apparently  better  reason,  believe 
it  to  ha\-e  been  taken  from  the  arms  of  the  family,  wln'ch.  were  a 
fascine  (or  wase)  such  as  w<as  used  in  stornn'ng,  tlic  black'  color 
of  which  wa^  changed  bv  King  Gustaf  into  gold  for),  whicli  le<l 
to  tlic  idea  lliat  h\<  cognizrmce  had  been  a  slicaf  rif  ripe  corn. 
<'lu-tai  liad  been  kept  a  jjrisoner  for  more  than  a  ye:'r  <at  Kallo.  in 
Jutla!id.  but  liad  e-caped  in  15 19.  finding  safety  for  a  lime  at 
Liiheck-.  hi  tlic  ^iir:ni;-  of  15_'()  he  had  \'enlr,red  lo  return  to 
I^weden.  where  he  \\,''. -  forced  to  assume  \-arioir-  di^-gui-e-^.  and 
tf)  labor  on  farnH  anf]  in  the  mines  of  Dalekarlia,  to  elud.e  the  Dan- 
ish authorities,  by  w]ii>m  a  price  had  been   -el   on  his  head.      1'he 


SWEDISH     REVOLUTION  151 

1520-1521 

Swedish  peasants  themselves  at  first  often  threatened  his  Hfe,  de- 
claring that  they  meant  to  be  true  to  the  king  as  long  as  "  he  left 
them  herrings  and  salt  enough  for  themselves  and  their  families." 
But  by  degrees  friends  and  supporters  sprang  up  around  him, 
and  his  confidence  in  his  countrymen  was  seldom  abused. 

Once  he  only  escaped  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Danes  by 
concealing  himself  under  a  load  of  hay,  and  when  the  soldiers 
thrust  their  spears  into  the  mass  and  wounded  him  in  the  side,  he 
still  kept  silence,  while  his  faithful  guide,  to  account  for  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  blood  which  had  trickled  from  his  wound  to  the 
frozen,  snow-covered  road,  cut  his  horse  in  the  leg.  The  barn  at 
Rankhytta  in  Dalekarlia,  where  he  thrashed  oats;  the  spot  in  the 
woods  near  Marnaas,  where  he  lay  three  days  and  nights  con- 
cealed under  a  felled  pine  trunk,  and  was  fed  by  the  peasants  of 
the  district ;  and  many  other  places  rendered  memorable  by  his 
labors,  are  still  preserved  and  honored  in  Svv'eden. 

Even  though  the  peasants  refused  to  listen  to  the  first  public 
appeal  which  Gustaf  made  to  them  at  the  Mora  Stone,  they  did 
not  betray  him ;  and  when  soon  after  he  had  left  the  district  at  their 
request,  the  particulars  of  the  blood  bath  were  related  to  them  by 
a  noble  of  Upland,  named  Jon  IMichelsson,  they  repented  of  their 
conduct,  and  wished  Gustaf  Eriksson  among  them  once  more.  By 
Michelsson's  advice  they  sent  swift  "  skid  "  runners  to  seek  Gus- 
taf. Following  him  night  and  day,  the  skaters  finally  came  upon 
him  at  a  mountain  pass  between  Sweden  and  Norway,  just  as  he 
was  about  to  cross  the  frontier,  and  brought  him  back  to  IMora, 
where,  at  the  King's  Stone,  peasants  assembled  from  all  the  neigh- 
boring districts  elected  him  to  be  their  ''chief  man  in  the  king- 
dom." The  superstitious  country  folk  regarded  it  as  a  favorable 
omen  that  whenever  Gustaf  had  addressed  them  the  wind  had 
blown  from  the  north,  which  had  always  been  looked  upon  in 
Sweden  as  a  proof  that  "  God  would  give  the  matter  a  good  end- 
ing." Sixteen  powerful  men  were  chosen  for  Gustaf's  bodyguard, 
and  presently  several  lumdred  Dalesmen  had  offered  him  their 
services  as  foot-followers.  From  these  small  beginnings  of  power 
the  Swedish  chroniclers  date  the  commencement  of  Gustaf's  reign, 
although  the  Danes  and  their  adherents  in  Stockholm  continued 
long  after  these  events  to  regard  him  and  his  followers  as  rebels. 

In  the  S])ring  of  1521  Gustrif  suddenly  made  his  a])pearance 
at  the  roval  c(3p]jer  mines  above  Kitwik,  where  he  seized  the  money 


152 


S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  \'  I  A 


isa 


belonging  to  the  crown  and  t!ie  warCvS  of  tlie  Danish  traders  set- 
tled there,  and  carried  off  the  royal  bailiff,  Christopher  Olsson, 
whom  he  intrusted  to  the  safekeeping  of  one  of  his  faithful  Dales- 
men. The  money  and  goods  he  divided  among  his  followers,  who 
made  their  first  flag  from  a  piece  of  silk  taken  from  the  Danes. 
Snb?ef[iiently  presenting  himself  before  the  miners  while  they  were 
attending  mass,  Gustaf  made  them  a  long  address,  in  which  he  de- 


f^jS  "-^^^ 


"^"^n^,,    ■fc^TME  ATRC    OF   TM  E  "V. 

SWEDISH 
REVOLUTION 


tailed  ilic  evils  that  tlie  Danes  were  working  in  the  land,  and  b}- 
his  fMrcc  and  cl<if|ucnce  obtained  a  prc^mise  of  support  from  them, 
as  well  ;is  from  the  Dalesmen  of  Dalekarlia. 

In  the  nu-aniime  the  authority  of  the  Danish  king  was  main- 
tained at  .^I'.ckhohn.  wIrtc  Uidrik  Slaghoek  ruled  under  the  title 
of  regent  of  Sweden,  and  was  supported  by  the  archbishop,  Gustaf 
'J  rolle,  and  a  factinn  of  the  Swedish  nobles  rmd  chief  citizens. 
As  soon  as  tlie-e  learned  the  action  of  the  Dalesmen  thev  sent  an 


SWEDISH     REVOLUTION  153 

1521-1522 

army  of  8000  Germans  to  attack  Gustafs  followers,  whom  they 
found  assembled  on  the  banks  of  the  Dal,  near  the  Brunnbak  ferry, 
pouring  a  shower  of  arrows  with  strong  and  steady  aim  across  the 
little  stream.  Bishop  Beldenak,  the  militant  churchman,  w^ho  com- 
manded the  Danes,  was  curious  to  know  how  the  Dalesmen  could 
get  food  in  such  a  desolate  region.  On  hearing  that  they  were  so 
hardy  that  they  drank  only  water  and,  if  necessary,  could  make 
shift  to  live  on  barkbread,  he  is  reported  by  the  chroniclers  to 
have  declared:  "If  this  be  so,  my  comrades,  let  us  retreat  while 
we  may;  for  the  devil  himself,  let  alone  ordinary  mortals,  could 
never  subdue  a  people  who  can  live  on  wood  and  water.''  The 
victory  at  Brunnbak  dispirited  the  Danes  and  gave  the  turning- 
point  to  Gustafs  fortunes ;  and  by  encouraging  the  peasantry  to 
declare  themselves  for  him,  placed  the  whole  of  northern  Sweden  in 
his  power.  Soon  20,000  men  were  gathered  round  his  standard  at 
Vesteraas.  Here  a  second  victory  was  won,  with  little  havoc  to 
the  Danes,  indeed,  but  with  great  moral  effect  upon  the  Swedish 
yeomanry.  Gustafs  cause  now  gained  ground  consistently  and 
steadily.  Castle  after  castle  succumbed  to  force  or  stratagem,  and 
soon  there  was  not  a  Danish  leader  left  in  Sweden,  except  Chris- 
tian's able  commander,  Severin,  or  Soren  Xorby,  who  by  his  gallant 
defense  of  Stockholm  gave  a  temporary  check  to  Gustafs  arms. 
The  feeling  against  the  Danes  in  Sweden  had,  however,  risen  to 
so  high  a  pitch  that  successful  resistance  could  no  longer  be  opposed 
to  the  natural  desire  for  independence.  Christian  11.  himself  aided 
the  Swedish  cause,  having  never  for  a  moment  desisted  from  his 
course  of  persecution.  When  the  news  reached  Sweden  in  1522 
that  many  of  the  widows  and  children  of  the  victims  in  the  blood 
bath  had  died  in  the  dungeons  into  which  the  king  had  flung  them 
when  he  carried  tliem  to  Denmark,  the  fury  of  the  Swedes  knew 
no  bounds.  Gustaf  Ei-iksson's  mother  and  his  two  sisters  had 
been  among  the  first  to  succumb  to  the  cruel  treatment  to  which 
they  were  subjected,  and  in  the  letter  which  he  addressed  to  tlic 
Pope,  the  emperor,  and  all  Christian  princes,  in  1522,  in  explana- 
tion of  the  reasons  that  had  induced  him  and  his  followers  to  rise 
against  the  power  of  tlie  King  of  Denmark,  Gustaf  even  ventured 
to  accuse  the  king  of  having  poisrmed  the  Swedish  women  who  had 
died  in  the  Danish  prisons.  When  Christian  learned  the  purport 
of  Gustafs  appeal,  lie  sent  (orders  l(.)  Xorby  to  execute  e\'ery  Swed- 
ish noble  whom  he  could  seize,  but  the  Danish  commander  let  his 


154  SCANDINAVIA 

1522-1523 

prisoners  escape  whenever  he  could,  on  the  ground  that  it  was 
"  better  tliat  men  should  have  a  chance  of  getting  a  knock  on  the 
head  in  battle  than  to  wring  their  necks  as  if  they  were  chickens." 

Not  all  Danes  had  such  scruples.  The  Junker  Thomas,  com- 
mandant of  Abo,  obeyed  his  king's  orders  so  exactly  that  lie  was 
able  to  send  a  report  to  Denmark  that  he  had  celebrated  another 
blood  bath.  This  officer,  however,  met  his  own  death  in  the  fol- 
Icjwing  year,  when,  in  making  an  attempt  to  relieve  Stockholm,  he 
and  all  his  ships  fell  into  the  hands  of  Gustaf,  by  whom  he  was 
hanged  on  a  tree  in  sight  of  his  own  men.  In  April,  1523,  King 
Christian  himself  was  without  a  throne  and  was  in  full  flight  from 
his  Danish  realm.  His  deposition  was  follov;ed  in  Sweden  by  a 
meeting  of  the  diet  at  Strangnas,  where,  on  June  23,  in  that  year, 
Gustaf  Eriksson  was  proclaimed  king  of  Sweden,  and  the  union 
with  Denmark,  which  had  existed  for  one  hundred  and  twenty-six 
years,  forever  dissolved.  During  the  short  interval  between  the 
deposition  of  Christian  and  the  proclamation  of  Gustaf,  one  town 
after  the  other  had  been  relieved  of  its  Danish  garrison,  Calmar 
and  Stockholm  taken,  and  the  provinces  of  Skaania,  Bleking,  and 
ITalland  incorporated  by  force  of  arms,  and  by  subsequent  treaties 
with  the  kingdom  of  Sweden,  of  which  thev  h.ad  always  formed  an 
original  part,  both  by  virtue  of  their  geographical  position  and  their 
natirinal  character.  Before  the  close  of  the  vear  Finland  liad  de- 
clared its  willingness  to  receive  Gustaf  as  its  king,  and  thus  all  the 
Swedish  dominions  were  brought  under  the  power  of  the  one  man, 
who  centered  in  himself  the  wishes  anrl  hopes  of  the  entire  nation. 
"  Sweden  liad  become  a  national  monarchy  in  the  modern  patriotic 
sense  of  tlie  term." 

\\'hcn  Gust;if  made  his  entry  into  Stockholm  in  midsummer, 
T523.  he  fnunrl  a  ruined  and  desolate  capital,  tlie  spirit  of  wlio-c 
])cople  was  broken  by  the  miserv  of  the  past  siege  and  the  op])res- 
sion  ot  torcign  vnlc.  There  v/as  no  mr>n.cv  to  meet  the  expenses 
of  go\-ernnient,  the  nobles  and  prelates,  wlio  were  the  only  ckisscs 
able  \n  cjiitribnte  to  that  end,  ha\ing  made  themscU'cs  immune 
from  ail  taxation  and  service  to  tlie  crown,  except  in  case  of 
toi-cign  nna-inn.  The  ]  lanse  Leaguers,  who  had  al-^o  seciu'cd  to 
thcmM-Krs  entire  freedom  of  trade  in  return  for  tlic  services  which 
tliev  had  rendered  the  Swedes  against  Denmark,  jircs.-ed  their 
c-iaim^  lor  ijaymeni  \,rr  the  arnT-  and  provi>i.  »n--  which  they  had 
f'arni-iied  Gii-taf  durnig  hi-.  >ie^e  of  StockJK^lm.     Thus,  whichever 


SWEDISH     REVOLUTION  155 

1523-1526 

way  the  new  ruler  looked,  financial  difficulties  seemed  to  oppose 
insurmountable  obstacles  to  the  attainment  of  order  in  the  kingdom. 
Then  it  was  that  Gustaf  determined  to  crush  at  one  blow  the  power 
of  the  higher  clergy,  who  had  made  themselves  hateful  to  the  peo- 
ple by  their  efforts  to  uphold  the  union  with  Denmark,  and  to  re- 
lieve his  own  wants  and  those  of  the  state  at  the  expense  of  the 
church. 

The  Reformation  movement,  now  under  way  in  Germany,  cre- 
ated the  opportunity.  Already  when  the  brothers  Olaus  and  Lau- 
rentius  Petri,  who  had  studied  at  Wittenberg,  had  returned  to 
Sweden  in  15 19  and  begun  teaching  the  people  Luther's  doctrines, 
Gustaf  had  given  them  his  support.  He  now  appointed  Olaus  to  a 
church  at  Stockholm,  and  made  the  younger  brother  professor  of 
theology  at  Upsala,  and  soon  afterward  chose  for  his  chancellor 
the  provost,  Laurentius  Andreae,  who  had  renounced  Catholicism 
and  who  later  translated  the  New  Testament  into  Swedish.  He 
also  caused  a  public  disputation  to  be  held  between  the  supporters 
of  the  old  and  the  new  dogmas,  paying  no  attention  to  the  Papal 
letter  presented  to  him  by  Brask,  Bishop  of  Linkoping,  in  which 
Adrian  VL  ordered  a  court  of  inquisition  to  be  opened  in  every 
bishopric  of  Sweden  for  the  punishment  of  heretics  and  the  con- 
demnation of  Luther's  works.  At  this  point  the  excesses  of  two 
Anabaptists  named  Knipperdolling  and  Rink,  who,  with  their  fol- 
lowers, set  about  destroying  the  images  in  the  churches,  produced 
considerable  disturbances  in  Stockholm.  Temporary  discredit  was 
thus  placed  upon  the  Reform  movement,  until  Gustaf  ordered  the 
iconoclasts  to  be  driven  out  of  Sweden.  Afterward,  v/hen  the  peo- 
ple declared  that  they  wished  to  keep  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers, 
Gustaf  reassured  them  to  the  effect  that  he  desired  merely  to  purge 
the  cliurch  of  its  abuses.  But  already,  avowing  that  "  necessity 
has  no  law,"  he  had  begun  his  campaign  against  cluu'ch  property, 
seeking  out  pretexts  for  reclaiming  church  lands,  subjecting  the 
bishops  who  protested  to  special  humiliations  and  exactions,  banish- 
ing- the  primate,  Johannes  IMagnus,  and  finally,  at  the  diet  of  Vad- 
stena,  in  January,  1526,  appropriating  two-thirds  of  the  church 
tithes  to  be  gathered  that  winter.  "  I^or,"  said  the  chancellor, 
"  when  we  speak  of  the  church's  money,  we  mean  the  people's."  ^ 

At  length,  Gustaf  summoned  the  diet  of  Vesteraas,  to  discuss 

1  "  Tlie  History  of  (aistavus  Vasa.  King  of  Sweden,  with  Extracts  from  his 
Correspondence,"  London,   1852,  p.   128. 


156  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  V  I  A 

1526-1527 

the  entire  relic^'ioiis  question.  It  met  June  24.  1527.  The  openinj^ 
address,  uliicli  was  the  kin.^'s.  thougli  it  was  read  by  the  clian- 
cellor,  is  a  highly  important  document  and  may  profitably  be  repro- 
duced at  some  length.-  'Ihe  king  began  by  recalling  the  fact  that 
he  had  offered  to  resign  tlie  regency  at  an  early  date  in  the  revolt 
against  the  Danish  king.  '  Ijut  finding  that  no  one  would  under- 
take the  office  he  had  conducted  it  in  God's  name,  and  to  the  best 
of  the  ability  which  God  had  given  him.'  However,  the  completion 
of  the  revolt  had  necessitated  expenditures  which  had  obliged  him 
to  crave  assistance  from  foreign  lands,  especially  from  Liibeck  and 
the  other  Hanse  towns.  This  debt  still  remained  unliquidated. 
"After  the  surrender  of  Stockholm  the  nobles  and  people  had 
chosen  him  king  and  promised  him  all  loyal  support  and  obedience ; 
and,  though  he  had  met  great  opposition,  chiefly  owing  to  the 
unsteadiness  which  the  Swedes  were  wont  to  observe  in  regard 
to  their  princes,  and  for  fear  the  same  game  would  be  played  with 
him,  as  with  others,  yet,  partly  because  he  was  then  young,  and 
l)elieved  the  oaths  and  promises  which  they  made  him  on  behalf 
of  the  whole  kingdom,  and  partly  because  he  thought  that  the 
Swedes,  taught  by  past  bitter  experiences,  would  thenceforth  avoid 
disunion  and  conspiracies,  and  not  hastily  attempt  any  change,  he 
had  given  his  consent — of  which  he  had  often  repented.  Who 
could  rule  a  ])eople  that,  as  soon  as  a  crime  was  punished,  passed 
from  hand  to  hand  the  signal  for  revolt  ?  "  The  Dalesmen  were 
particularly  prone  to  misprision  of  treason,  to  disloyal  complaining, 
and  to  take  an  exaggerated  view  of  their  own  privileges  and  im- 
]:)ortance.  "  Swaggcrly  [they]  claim  greater  ])rivileges  than  others, 
as  if,  in  comparison  with  them,  they  were  serfs  and  slaves."  Also 
'  they  laid  to  his  [Gustaf's]  charge  the  dearness  of  salt,  of  corn,  and 
cldth — which  he  had  done  his  best  to  cheapen — as  if  he  were  a  god, 
and  c\-cr}-tliing  were  in  his  joower.'  They  complained  that  he  had 
])i11rigc<l  monasteries  .and  churches,  and  had  fjuartercd  troops  upon 
ihcni,  '  wliifh  merely  meant  that  assistance  had  been  obtained  of 
tliem  to  lighten  the  burdens  of  the  pco])le ;  but  this,  too,  had  been 
with  the  con-^enl  of  the  state  council,  and  miglit  well  be,  seeing 
that  the  ])enple  had  accuiuulated  this  wealth  and  that  it  was  their 
own.  It  w;i^  iin])ined  to  hiiu  that  he  was  bringing  in  a  new  religion, 
only  becaii-e  he  and  many  more  had  found  out  how  they  had  been 
decei\ed.  and  in  many  things  o])pressed.  by  the  ecclesiastics,  who 
- '■ 'I  lie  Mi-tory  iji  Gn-tavas  Vasa,  King  of  Sweden,  with  extracts  from  his 


SWEDISH     REVO  LT^T  ION  157 

1527 

exalt  the  Pope  of  Rome.  The  rulers  oi"  the  kingdom  had  been  too 
long-  obliged  to  put  up  with  the  insults  n\'  warhke  and  turbulent 
prelates,  such  as  Gustaf  I'rolle.  who  had  threatened  to  use  sharper 
weapons  against  Sten  Sture  tlian  book  and  candle.  The  regent 
could  support  only  500  soldiers  from  the  resources  of  the  state,  be- 
cause the  crown  and  nobles  had  only  a  third  part  of  the  landed 
property,  while  priests  or  monks,  churches  or  convents  had  all  the 
rest.  He  confessed  that  he  permitted  the  preaching  of  God's  word 
and  Gospel,  and  some  of  the  preachers  were  here  ready  to  defend 
their  doctrine;  the  prelates  of  the  church,  however,  would  not  listen 
to  them,  but  relied  upon  ancient  custom,  right  or  wrong.  It  was 
falsely  and  shamelessly  said  of  him  that  he  wanted  no  priests  in  the 
countrv^;  he  hoped  to  die  a  Christian;  he  knew  that  teachers  could 
not  be  dispensed  w' ith ;  .  .  .  but  with  respect  to  those  wdio  did 
not  perform  their  functions  for  the  public  good  he  should  consult 
the  estates.  For  his  part,  he  w^as  ready  to  abdicate  the  throne,  take 
a  fief  instead,  and  thank  them  for  the  honor  they  had  done  him; 
but  if  Sweden  would  have  a  king,  he  must  have  means  to  support 
his  power.  The  new  style  of  warfare  which  had  arisen  in  otlier 
countries  demanded  larger  outlays ;  the  fortresses  of  the  kingdom 
were  in  decay  or  ruin :  the  king's  revenues  were  withheld,  when 
every  man  was  lord  of  his  own  castle.  Besides,  the  nobles  were 
so  impoverished  that  they  could  not  fulfill  their  obligation  of  pro-' 
tecting  the  realm,  and  were  continually  asking,  and  no  wonder,  for 
new  fiefs.  The  customs  had  vanislied.  the  silver  and  copi)er  mines 
fallen  off,  food  for  the  towns  had  failed,  and  for  the  miserable  re- 
mains of  trade,  town  and  country  squabbled  with  each  other.  Such 
evils  demanded  a  remedy,  whosoever  was  to  rule  over  the  kingdom.', 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  reading  of  the  address  Gustaf  chal- 
lenged the  prelates  and  nc-blcs,  particularly  the  former,  to  make  a 
satisfactory  response;  whereupon  Bishop  Brask  arose.  He  said 
that  he  and  his  brethren  knew  the  duty  that  they  owed  the  king,  but 
they  could  not  forget  that  they  were  bound  in  all  spiritual  matters 
to  obey  the  Pope,  without  whose  express  command  they  could  alknv 
no  changes  in  regard  to  religious  teaching  nor  consent  to  any  lessen-' 
ing  of  the  rights  and  revenues  of  the  church;  and  concluded  by 
saying  that  "  if  in  this  respect  any  evil-minded  men  had  taught 
heretical  doctrines,  or  gi\cn  bad  advice,  they  must  be  jnit  to  silence 
and  punished."'  Gustaf  demanded  wdiether  the  C(juncil  of  state  and 
the  nobles  considered  this  a  proper  reply  to  his  demands.  f^Thcre-^ 


158  SCANDINAVIA 

1527-1544 

upon.  Tiire  Jonsson.  the  spokesman  of  the  nobihty,  vociferated  that 
they  knew  nothing  better  to  say,  "  Then/'  exclaimed  Gustaf,  spring- 
ing excitedly  to  liis  feet,  "  I  will  no  longer  be  your  king.  If  such 
are  your  thoughts  I  do  not  wonder  at  the  treason  and  discontent 
of  the  common  people,  who  blame  me  if  they  do  not  get  rain  or 
sunshine,  when  they  want  either.  Your  aim,  I  perceive,  is  to  be 
my  masters.  Who  would  be  your  king  on  such  terms,  think  you? 
Xot  the  worst  beset  soul  out  of  hell.  So  see  to  it;  give  me  back 
\vhat  T  have  spent  of  my  own  fortune,  and  I  will  go  away  from 
you  all,  and  never  return  to  my  ungrateful  country."  Gustaf 
paused,  and,  bursting  into  tears,  rushed  from  the  hall. 

Tlicre  was  great  excitement  throughout  Vesteraas  when  it 
transpired  that  King  Gustaf  had  threatened  to  leave  Sweden.  The 
peasants,  collecting  in  large  numbers,  proclaimed  that  "  if  the  lords 
could  not  make  up  their  minds  what  ought  to  be  done,  the  bondar 
would  find  a  way  to  help  themselves."  The  bishops  were  the  first 
to  recede  from  their  position.  On  the  third  day  Magnus  Sommar, 
Bishop  of  Strangnas,  came  forward  and  said  that  "  the  servants  of 
the  church  had  no  wish  to  be  protected  at  the  risk  of  destroying  the 
])eace  of  the  kingdom.''  The  nobles  under  Ture  Jonsson,  however, 
still  h.eld  out,  till  the  bondar,  at  length,  threatened  to  go  to  the 
king  and  propose  to  him  that  tlie  recalcitrants  should  all  be  sent 
back  to  their  own  castles.  The  nobles  now  yielded,  and  came  in 
depntati')n  to  the  palace  with  promises  of  submission.  But  Gustaf 
returned  only  hard  answers  to  the  messages  sent  in  to  him.  Not 
r.ntil  all  his  proposals  had  been  completely  and  explicitly  acceded 
to  by  cacli  order  of  the  diet  did  he  melt. 

By  the  so-called  ''  Vesteraas  Recess,"  the  church  surrendered 
to  the  king  all  its  property,  not"  adjudged  by  him  to  be  absolutely 
iieccssar}-  to  its  maintenance.  Rcfornied  teachers  were  permitted 
\<<  ])reacli  in  Swcflish  to  tiie  ])eo])lc  ''  as  long  as  they  used  the  Scrip- 
tures fin1}-  and  had  nothing  to  do  with  false  miracles  and  such 
like  fa1)!es."'  Tlie  cliange  to  Lutlicranism  was  very  gradual,  the 
king  con'^cntlng  to  jx'rsecute  nobody.  At  the  same  time  he  insisted 
n])on  the  limitles^ne^s  of  his  authority  "  in  matters  both  spiritual 
and  temporal."'  and,  wlien  his  will  was  disputed  by  tlie  T3alesmen, 
becan-e  he  i?i-!vicd  on  talking  one  bell  from  e\'ery  church  to  pay  a 
debt  due  the  Liiberkers.  and  snbse(|uentlv  by  the  ])casants  of  Sma;i- 
land  in  the  intere->t  of  Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  the  uprisings 
were  put  down  with  the  greatest  se\-crity.     Unlike  the  iveformation 


SWEDISH     REVOLUTION  159 

1544-1560 

in  Denmark,  the  Reformation  in  Sweden  was  initially  purely  po- 
litical and  meant  not  only  the  undoing  of  the  clergy,  but  also  of  the 
nobility.  The  ccnmcil  of  state,  or  riksrag,  was  henceforth  an 
acquiescent  board  of  advisers  for  the  king-.  In  1544  Gustaf  was 
able  to  fortify  the  royal  power  still  further  by  securing  a  law  mak- 
ing the  throne  hereditary  in  his  family. 

From  1544  till  the  end  of  his  life,  Gustaf  never  desisted  from 
his  labors  for  the  improvement  of  his  kingdom,  and  so  untiring  was 
his  industry  and  his  determination  to  be  master  in  all  things  that 
there  was  no  subject,  however  trivial,  that  he  did  not  consider  and 
determine.  He  set  the  finances  of  the  kingdom  in  such  order  that 
he  left  at  his  death  a  well-filled  treasur}^,  a  standing  army  of  15,000 
men,  and  a  well-appointed  fleet.  He  supervised  everything  in  per- 
son, writing  witli  his  own  hand  letters  to  the  clergy  in  regard  to 
the  management  of  their  houses  and  lands,  and  rating  them  soundly 
for  any  proceedings  in  their  parishes  of  which  he  did  not  approve. 
He  corresponded  with  the  overseers  of  the  royal  mines  and  forests 
in  regard  to  their  expenses  and  the  best  methods  of  controlling  the 
works  under  their  care:  with  the  nobles  in  regard  to  the  proper 
manner  in  which  they  should  rule  their  houses  and  families,  plow 
their  land,  and  tend  their  cattle;  and  with  his  own  relations  and 
personal  attendants  on  the  subject  of  their  dress  and  domestic 
affairs. 

He  exacted  tithes  to  the  utmost,  but  he  kept  the  parisli  priests 
well  provided  wath  the  means  for  extractirig-  the  greatest  profit 
from  the  land  which  they  were  allowed  to  hold  under  the  crown. 
Swedish  trade  owed  its  origin  to  Gustaf,  and  wlien  lie  found  that 
the  people  living-  at  the  seaports  did  not  take  an  active  part  in  the 
American  and  Indian  trade,  v/lrich  he  desired  to  encourage,  he 
sent  them  harsh  reproofs  and  threatened  to  come  himself  and  see 
what  they  were  doing-.  Xo  kind  of  business  escaped  his  tireless 
attention.  He  enjoined  it  ripon  master- Vv'(jrkmen.,  on.  penalty  of 
fine,  to  engage  apprentices  cind  to  teach  tliem  with  care  and  patience. 
He  drew  up  regulaticjns  for  the  maintenance  of  greater  cleanliness 
in  the  towns,  and  ordered  roads  to  be  made  from  north  to  soutli  to 
penetrate  the  kingdom.  He  took  pains  to  see  that  schools  were 
maintained  in  the  several  ]):irishcs,  .'ind  ga\e  a  nv.w  character  to 
the  university  teaching  at  l'j)sala  lie  even  caused  a,  new  rhyming 
chronicle  to  be  dravv-ii  v.p,  for  the  purpose,  as  he  said,  of  "  giving  a 
true  account  of  the  events  recorded  by  t!ie  Danish  chroniclers,  and 


160  S  C  A  X  U  I  X  A  \'  I  A 

! 544 -1560 

to  sustain  In  the  minds  of  his  people  the  remembrance  of  the  conckict 
of  the  Danes  during  their  rule  in  Sweden." 

In  every  way  Gustaf  Vasa  paved  the  way  for  the  "  Glorious 
Epoch  "  in  Swedish  history.  Avhich  ensued  in  the  following  cen- 
turv.  He  looked  upon  Sweden  as  his  own.  ''  Vou  think."  he  wrote 
to  some  peasants.  "  that  becaus£  you  have  come  into  possession  of 
your  land  by  inheritance  that  you  can  use  it  as  you  choose ;  we 
answer  that  we  leave  lands  and  houses  in  the  possession  of  those 
who  know  how  to  use  them  properly — otherwise  they  revert  to 
us."  Upon  this  theory  was  based  his  minute  supervision  of  his 
j^ople's  industries,  his  tireless  personal  efforts  in  the  development 
of  the  national  resources.  Tn  his  treaty  of  alliance  with  Francis 
I.  of  France,  negotiated  in  1544.  Gustaf  wrote  a  new  chapter  in 
tlie  history  of  Sweden's  foreign  relations.  At  that  uKjment 
Sweden  entered  the  European  concert  of  powers.  Finally,  Gustaf 
began  the  organization  of  the  Swedish  army,  which,  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  to  become  the  most  efficient  military  machine 
that  Europe  had  cx'cr  known. 

Gustaf  was  three  times  married.  His  first  queen  was  Katli- 
crine  of  Saxe-Lauenburg.  The  issue  of  this  marriage  was  the  half- 
insane  Erik.  Knowing  the  violence  and  caprice  of  Erik's  nature 
Gustaf  determined  to  make  his  younger  sons  independent  of  their 
brotlier.  Accordingly,  by  his  will,  he  left,  as  hereditary  duchies, 
l^nland  to  Johan  the  next  in  age.  East  Gothland  to  Magnus,  and 
Soedermannland  and  \"crmland  to  hi?  }"oungest  son,  Karl,  who  was 
then  a  child.  Soon  after  the  king  had  received  the  sanction  of 
his  council  and  the  diet  for  this  subdivision  of  the  kingdom,  he 
died  in  1560  at  the  age  of  sixty-four,  w(jrn  out  with  the  tremendous 
burden  of  his  energetic  rule.  Tn  accordance  with  the  wishes  which 
he  had  expressed,  he  was  buried  within  the  chancel  of  the  cathedral 
cIuutIi  of  Upsala. 


Chapter    XIII 


THE  RISE  OF  SWEDEN  INTO  EUROPEAN  PROMINENCE 

1 560-161 1 

ERIK  XIV.  of  Sweden  is  a  curious  and  picturesque  cliaracter. 
At  the  time  of  his  father's  death  he  was  about  to  start  on 
a  voyage  to  England  to  make  a  formal  suit  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  had  caused  a  considerable  fleet  and  a  number  of  men-at- 
arms  to  be  given  him,  in  order,  as  he  said,  that  he  might  make  a 
gallant  appearance  at  the  English  court,  though  many  suspected 
that  he  designed  to  seize  upon  the  crown  without  waiting  till  it 
came  to  him  by  heritage.  The  news  of  Gustafs  sudden  death 
reached  Erik  while  he  was  reviewing  his  ships  and  men  at  Elfs- 
borg.  Disbanding  his  forces,  he  hurried  l)ack  to  Stockholm  and 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king.  He  was  at  that  time  twenty- 
seven  years  of  age,  handsome,  graceful,  eloquent,  accomjilished  in 
manly  exercises,  a  good  linguist,  able  to  write  well  in  Latin,  as 
well  as  in  Swedish,  and  is  reported  to  have  been  something  of  a 
poet,  musician,  painter,  mathematician,  and  astrologer. 

But  this  prodigious  list  of  accomplishments  was  offset  by  a 
strangely  capricious  disposition  and  by  sudden  and  violent  out- 
bursts of  temper,  which  at  times  amounted  to  insanity.  And  if 
the  young  king  was  prodigal  of  his  talents,  he  was  even  more  prodi- 
gal of  his  resources.  During  the  early  }"ears  of  his  reign  he  wasted 
in  preparations  for  his  coronation,  ar.d  in  \'arious  absurd  missions 
in  search  of  a  wife,  all  the  money  that  liis  father  had  left  in  the 
treasury.  Besides  the  regalia,  which  he  ordered  from  London  and 
Antwerp,  and  chests  of  jewels  and  ornaments  of  all  kinds,  he  caused 
a  number  of  strange  animals,  which  liad  never  before  been  seen 
in  Sweden,  to  be  bnjught  into  the  country,  for  the  puljlic  games 
with  which  he  intended  to  amuse  the  people.  We  learn  from  the 
lists  given  of  these  animals  that  rabl)its  were  at  that  time  unknown, 
or  still  uncommon,  in  Sweden,  fen-  they  arc  included,  with  lions  and 
camels,  among  the  rare  and  curious  creatures  to  be  exliibited. 

As  soon  as  his  coronation  was  o\'cr  Erik  resumed  his  i)repara- 

i(jl 


162  SCANDINAVIA 

1560-1569 

tions  for  soliciting  tlie  hand  of  Onecn  Elizabeth,  to  whom  he  sent 
amljassadors  with  costly  gifts,  among  which  we  hear  of  eighteen 
piebald  horses,  and  several  chests  of  nncomed  bars  of  gold  and 
silver,  strings  of  oriental  pearls,  and  many  valuable  furs.  He  also 
furnished  money  to  his  envoy,  Gyllenstjerna,  with  orders  to  bribe 
the  luiglish  councilors  of  state,  and  to  "  have  the  queen's  favorite, 
Leicester.  ])ut  out  of  the  way.  even  if  it  should  cost  lo.ooo  rix  dol- 
lars." During  tlie  preceding  year  his  intentions  toward  the  earl  had 
been  more  honorai;le.  for  lie  then  directed  Gyllenstjerna  to  inform 
Leicester  that  '  his  king  was  ready  to  offer  him  battle  in  his  own 
royp.l  person  cither  in  Scotland  or  France.'  The  English  courtiers 
v;cre  tlirown  into  great  cor.sternation  wiien  they  heard  that  King 
Erik  had  embarked  with  a  great  fleet  from  Sweden,  with  matri- 
monial designs  upon  their  queen.  But  they  might  have  spared  them- 
sel\-es  all  their  anxiety:  for  Erik,  with  a  fickleness  that  had  already 
begun  to  assume  the  character  of  mental  aberrancy,  suddenly  gave 
(A'cr  his  plan  of  visiting  England.  At  the  same  time  he  sent  one 
messenger  to  Scotland  to  see  if  Queen  ^^larv  was  as  handsome  as 
pe(jjjle  reported;  another  with  a  betrothal  ring  to  Princess  Renata 
(if  Lorraine,  the  gran.ddaughter  of  Christian  IL  of  Denmark;  and 
a  tliird  with  a  contract  of  marriage,  already  drav;n  up,  to  the 
I'rinccss  Christina  of  Llesse.  for  whose  hand  he  had  more  than 
once  sued.  Lest  Queen  Elizaberh  should  feel  herself  aggrieved  by 
these  proceedings,  lie  sent  anr/cl-ter  emba'^sy  to  England  to  assure 
her  tliat  cares  of  state  alone  h.ad  kept  him  away,  and  that  he  was 
not  serious  in  his  offer  of  marriage  to  the  Hessian  princess.  The 
queen  accepted  iiis  apologies  .and  k'ept  his  gifts,  and  so  ended  this 
Swedi-ii  wooing,  to  the  immense  relief  of  Elizabeth  and  her 
advi>ers. 

V\']iile  Erik  was  indulging  in  all  this  eccentricity  and  extrava- 
gance wars  were  breaking  out  in  every  quarter.  Tlie  most  im- 
])"rtant  of  these  \vas  the  so-called  Scandinavian  !^e\  en  A'ear>'  War. 
which.  r;ri:-ing  out  of  the  rix'.al  ];retensions  of  F.rik  and  of  h^rederick 
H.  of  Dcnm-irl:  to  include  the  crov/ns  of  the  three  northern  nations 
m  their  (••■:i\-^  df  nrni-^.  was  marked  by  great  .atrocities  on  both 
^idc-.  'I  lie  I),".nes  were  seldom  the  xa'ctors  at  sea.  but.  during  the 
latter  part  fil  tlie  ^trugrde,  ihev  often  met  with  signal  successes  on 
l'"i<]  und(  r  iheir  able  general.  D.'sr.iel  R.antzau.  His  death,  while 
lK'-a;'i;ig  \'arl;er\;-  in  \zf\().  brought  the  war  1o  a  clo^'e.  after  it 
li.ad  (■<,.!    1j.  ,i!i   H<ie.  a   d(;:ldi-able  number  of  li\e<.   and   had  .a-'-.ain 


RISEOF     SWEDEN  163 

1569-1575 

aroused  that  mutual  jealousy  of  the  two  nations,  which,  under  Gus- 
taf,  had  begun  to  abate. 

Even  before  this  war  was  concluded,  however.  Erik  was  no 
longer  king;  his  infatuation  for  the  peasant  girl,  Katherine  Man- 
nadatter,  wdiom  he  made  his  queen;  his  imbecile  wanderings  in 
the  forests ;  his  alternate  moods  of  murderous  frenzy,  which  his 
evil  adviser,  Goran  Persson,  manipulated  to  the  destruction  of  the 
great  Sture  family,  and  of  penitential  remorse,  witli  its  sackcloth 
and  ashes,  all  bespoke  his  distraction  of  mind.  Finallv,  he  drove  his 
brother,  Magnus,  insane  by  compelling  him  to  sign  the  death-war- 
rant of  another  brother,  Duke  Johan.  The  latter,  in  alliance  with 
a  third  brother,  Duke  Karl,  immediately  took  up  arms,  and  ad- 
vanced upon  the  royal  castle  at  Stockliolm,  where  Erik  had  shut 
himself  up  with  his  queen  and  their  children.  Goran,  who  was  also 
there,  was  seized  by  the  king's  own  bodyguard  and  given  over  to 
the  dukes,  and,  after  a  sliort  trial,  was  put  to  death,  after  having 
undergone  the  most  horrible  tortures  that  his  enemies'  ingenuity 
could  devise. 

When  Erik  learned  tlie  fate  of  his  favorite  lie  surrendered, 
and  was,  by  the  order  of  his  brothers,  brought  to  trial  before  the 
assembled  states.  He  conducted  liis  own  defense.  The  diet,  how- 
ever, declared  that  he  had  forfeited  the  crown  for  himself  and  his 
children,  and  condemned  him  to  perpetund  confinement,  with  the 
attendance  and  personal  consideration  due  a  royal  priioner. 

The  eight  years  that  Erik  lived  after  his  deposition  in  1569 
were  most  pathetic.  He  Vvas  carried  from  one  prison  to  another 
on  the  pretense  that  his  presence  had  excited  insurrect!(jn,  and  al- 
ways under  the  guardianship  of  men  who  had  been  made  liis  ene- 
mies by  some  former  act  of  injustice  or  cruelty  on  his  part.  He 
addressed  frequent  appeals  for  mercy  to  his  brotlicr,  begging  pit- 
eously  to  be  allowed  to  retire  to  some  foreign  land,  where  he  might 
enjoy  having  his  wife  and  children  with  him.  "  Surel}'.''  he  once 
wrote,  "  the  world  is  large  enough  to  yield  a  spot  where  distance 
may  deaden  the  force  of  a  brother's  lia! red."  His  tlnxats,  his 
indignant  protests  against  liis  brother's  usuri)ation,  ;irid  every  at- 
tempt made  by  his  friends  to  rescue  In'm,  were  visited  upon  him 
with  an  increase  of  liarshness.  In  his  calmer  moments  he  amused 
himself  with  reading  and  with  music,  and  l)y  v/riting  long  treatises 
in  his  own  justification.  Tn  1575  tlic  council  of  state,  at  the  rcfjucst 
of  Johan,  signed  a  warrant  in  v.liich  jjower  was  gix'cn  to   h.rik's 


164>  SCANDINAVIA 

1569-1575 

keepers  to  put  him  out  of  the  way  if,  in  consequence  of  any  attempt 
at  his  rescue,  they  might  not  be  certain  of  being  able  to  retain  him 
in  safe  custody.  I'^or  two  years  no  one  could  be  found  to  act  on 
the  hint.  At  last,  however,  Johan  found  one  Heinricksson  willing 
to  undertake  the  job.  and  Erik  was  poisoned,  in  the  forty-fourth 
year  of  his  age.  His  body  was  laid  in  a  simple  grave  in  the  ca- 
thedral of  \'esteraas,  and  covered  with  a  stone  bearing  this  in- 
scription in  Latin  from  I.  Kings,  chapter  ii.,  verse  15  :  "  The  king- 
dom is  turned  about,  and  is  become  my  brother's:  for  it  w'as  his 
from  the  Lord.'' 

Erik's  \o\e  for  the  humbly  born  Katherine  ^Mannadatter 
had  been  so  sincere  that  the  common  people  ascribed  it  to  sor- 
cery. She  alone  had  ever  had  power  to  turn  away  his  anger,  and 
throughout  his  wretched  captivity  she  never  ceased  to  avail  herself 
of  every  chance  to  give  him  assurances  of  her  faithful  love;  and 
those,  as  he  himself  asserts  in  his  numerous  writings,  were  the  only 
alleviations  he  had  to  his  misery.  Of  their  two  children  the  elder, 
Sigrid.  niarried  early,  when  at  the  court  of  Johan's  ([ueen,  and 
became  the  ancestress  of  the  ducal  family.  Thott.  The  younger,  a 
son  named  Gustaf,  after  being  sent  out  of  Sweden  in  childhood 
and  forced  to  earn  his  own  living  by  teaching,  was  for  a  time 
kindly  treated  and  helped  by  the  Emperor  Rudolph,  under  whose 
])rotection  he  studied  alchemy.  His  strange  and  checkered  life. 
which  has  r)ften  been  made  the  subject  of  romance,  was  rendered 
more  unhappy  by  the  frequent  attempts  of  the  discontented  in 
Sweden  to  set  up  his  claims  against  his  uncle  Johan.  Hence  he  was 
ne\cr  suiYered  to  remain  long  in  quiet,  and  wherever  he  went  the 
.Swedish  king's  jealous  suspicions  followed  him.  At  length  he  died 
in  ir>o7  at  rm  obscure  countrv  place  in  Russia,  worn  out  with 
])'/\crty,  disease,  and  insanity,  induced  by  a  too  sedulous  study  of 
alclicmy  and  a^trologv. 

In  all  ilie  ])r(;cce(lings  against  Erik,  ihc  name  of  Karl  had 
invarialjjy  been  associated  with  tliat  of  Joh.an.  but  wlicn  the  insane 
king  was  irretrievably  out  of  tlie  way  Duke  Johan  asserted  his  right 
to  ])e  cr(;\\nc(l  S(jle  ruler  and  began  to  evince  such  sus])icion  of  his 
}Ounger  broilicr  as  to  compel  that  prince  to  observe  the  greatest 
circumspection  in  his  conduct. 

Jolian.  ilr.ring  his  imprisonment,  had  been  induced  by  his 
wife,  Katcriiia  jaL;L-llonica.  wlio  shared  his  dungeon,  to  ren(mnce 
J'rote.-tanli.-m  and  declare  Iiiin>elf  a  Catholic,  and  during  her  life- 


RISEOF     SWEDEN  165 

1575-1585 

time  he  never  desisted  from  his  efforts  to  reestabhsh  the  power  of 
the  Roman  Church  in  Sweden.  The  death  in  1573  of  Laurentius 
Petri,  the  first  Lutheran  archbishop  of  Sweden,  gave  Johan  the 
opportunity  of  testifying  pubHcly  the  views  which  he  had  long- 
been  trying  secretly  to  promote.  The  new  primate,  Gothus,  a  weak 
and  visionary  man,  was  easily  persuaded  to  give  his  sanction  to  a 
church  ordinance  for  the  restoration  of  monasteries,  the  veneration 
of  saints,  prayers  for  the  dead,  and  the  use  of  various  prelatical 
ceremonies.  Jesuits  were  sent  for  to  lecture  in  Stockholm,  but 
were  expressly  ordered  to  conceal  their  religion,  and  to  hold  dis- 
putations nominally  in  the  defense  of  the  Reformers.  When  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  learned  the  acts  of  duplicity  in  which  these  Jesuit 
teachers  had  been  engaged,  he  strongly  condemned  tlieir  conduct, 
and  enjoined  upon  the  king  boldly  to  proclaim  his  adhesion  to  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  to  use  no  further  deceit  in  the  matter.  Some 
years  later  he  even  caused  Fatlier  Laurentius  Norvegicus  to  be 
summoned  before  the  general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  at  Rome,  to 
answer  for  his  conduct  in  pretending  to  uphold  doctrines  which  he 
believed  to  be  false.  The  liturgy  which  Johan  had  drawn  up  with 
a  view  to  reconciling  the  new"  with  tlie  old  faith,  and  wliicli  had 
been  severely  condemned  by  tlie  Papal  court,  was  known  as 
Roda  Boken,  the  red  book.  The  king's  determination  to  e:rforce 
this  ritual  on  his  subjects  produced  great  clamor.  Soon  tliroughout 
Sw^eden  the  court  of  Duke  Karl,  who  had  refused  to  cillow  it  to  be 
introduced  in  his  provinces  of  Soedermanland,  Xiirike,  and  Verm- 
land,  became  the  recognized  asylum  for  all  persons  threatened  with 
persecution  for  their  adhesion  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers. 
The  Pope's  disapproval  of  Jolian's  conduct  and  tlie  death  of  his 
queen  had  the  effect  of  estranging  him  completely  from  the  Catho- 
lics, but,  until  his  marriage  in  15S5  with  Gunilla  Bjelkc,  a  young 
girl  of  sixteen,  and  daughter  of  the  Lutheran  councilor,  Johan 
Bjelke,  he  insisted  all  the  more  vehemently  upon  the  use  of  his  own 
liturgy,  punishing  all  ])reachers  and  teachers  who  (^pjjosed  its 
adoption  as  "  ignorant  blockheads,  obstinate  asses,  and  wicked 
devils." 

Johan  was  a  man  of  unstable  will,  pcjssesscd  with  extravagant 
ideas  of  his  own  dignity  and  of  the  dix'ine  cliar^icter  of  the  royal 
power,  but  his  weakness  and  wmity  made  him  most  snsce])tib!c  to 
flattery  and  therefore  readily  amenable  to  control  by  iliwoe  aijun! 
his  pers(jn.     After  his  second  marriage  he  identified  himself  \\i' >\-c 


166  SCANDINxVVIA 

1585-1589 

and  more  with  the  interests  of  the  Swedish  nobles,  the  Bjelkes, 
Sparrcs,  Bauers,  and  others,  with  whom  he  had  become  related. 
In  his  anxiety  to  secure  the  steadfast  arlhesion  of  these  and  other 
powerful  families  he  created  new  privileges  of  nobility,  and  be- 
stowed estates  and  certain  manorial  rights  in  connection  with  the 
title  of  count  and  baron,  which  had  not  hitherto  belonged  to  them, 
thus  undoing  much  of  Gustaf  Vasa's  wholesome  work. 

This  unfriendly  attitude  toward  the  nobility  did  not  endure, 
however.  In  1587  Prince  Sigismund,  the  only  son  of  Johan  and 
Katerina,  was  elected  to  the  vacant  throne  of  Poland.  He  was 
received  by  the  Poles  with  every  mark  of  respect  and  affection,  but 
the  cares  of  government  and  the  independence  of  the  nobles  made 
the  young  king  very  soon  regret  that  he  had  accepted  the  Polish 
crown  and  separated  himself  from  his  own  family.  King  Job.an 
was  equally  regretful  that  he  had  allowed  the  prince  to  leave  him, 
and.  at  a  meeting  held  between  them  in  1589.  father  and  son 
determined  to  renounce  all  claims  to  tlie  throne  of  l-'oland.  as  soon 
as  Sigismund's  resignation  could  be  accepted,  ^fhis  ])hrn.  however, 
met  with  so  mucli  opposition  among  Johan's  councilors  and  officers 
tliat  the  kings  had  to  submit  and  return  separately  to  tlieir  respec- 
tive capitals.  The  Swedish  king,  enraged  with  his  council,  now 
caused  the  greater  number  of  its  members  to  be  arrested,  and  called 
upon  them  to  defend  themselves  on  the  charge  of  treason,  while  he 
eft'ected  a  complete  reconciliation  with  his  brother,  Duke  Karl,  and 
resigned  to  him  the  chief  power  in  tlie  state.  The  disgraced  coun- 
cilors, hj-ik  Sparre,  Thur  Bjelke,  and  Stcn  Bauer,  were  deprived 
of  all  their  tenures  of  land  and  dignities,  and  although  no  act  of 
treason  could  be  proved  against  them  they  were  kept  in  close  con- 
finement till  1592. 

johan's  reign  was  unfortunate  in  almost  every  respect,  for 
while  religious  chTferences  had  been  allowed  to  disturb  the  king- 
dom, tlic  army  -.md  navy  had  been  neglected,  bad  sc:i<on.<,  murrain, 
famine,  and  jjcstik'nce  had  hea\-ily  afflicted  the  working  classes,  and 
the  llnanres  had  been  exhausted  by  war:>  with  Russia  and  Poland. 
Indeed,  the  one  event  oi  this  pericxl.  bringing  good  fortune  to 
Sweden,  was  ;i  legacv  from  the  reign  of  tlie  in-ane  hhak.  zi.::.,  the 
f'eace  of  Stettin,  whereby  the  dissolution  of  tlie  nin'on  of  Denmark 
and  Sweden  wa--  f'Tnially  recogin'zed,  the  riglit  of  botli  kings  to 
as-nme  []]<■  iln-ee  erowiis  in  the  ro}-al  arms  was  admitted,  Sl^aania, 
iialland,  and  Hlrking  were  re-t(jred  to  Denmark,  and  Sv^eden  was 


RISE     OF     SWEDEN  167 

1589-1592 

allowed  to  take  Elfsborg  1)ack  on  the  payment  to  Denmark  of  a  fine 
of  150,000  rix  dollars.^ 

During  the  reign  of  Johan  we  hear  for  tlic  first  time  of  the 
Russians  as  formidable  neighbors  and  foes  of  Sweden.  Before  the 
accession  in  1533  of  Ivan  IV.,  who  was  crowned  tsar  of  ]\Tuscovy 
in  1545,  the  savage  tribes  of  Paissia  had  hardly  been  heard  of  be- 
yond the  boundaries  of  their  indefinite  dominiivns,  but  under  that 
ferocious  tyrant  they  began  to  make  war  on  neighboring  states. 
Ivan  had,  however,  formed  a  sort  of  friendlv  alliance  with  Erik 
XIV.  of  Sweden,  who  as  a  proof  of  his  good-will  had  agreed  to 
help  the  IMuscovite  in  securing  for  himself  the  wife  of  Duke  Johan, 
Katerina  Jagellonica.  After  Erik's  abdication  Russian  envoys  ap- 
peared at  Stockholm  to  demand  the  person  of  Katerina,  and  the 
rage  of  the  people,  on  learning  the  insult  which  had  been  thus 
ofi^ered  to  their  queen,  was  so  great  that  it  required  the  personal 
interference  of  King  Johan  himself  and  of  Duke  Karl  to  prevent  the 
envoys  from  being  killed  in  the  streets  of  Stockholm.  They  were, 
however,  allowed  to  return  to  Russia,  and  in  1570  a  Swedish  em- 
bassy was  sent  to  negotiate  with  Ivan  in  regard  to  the  settlement  of 
a  boundary  question.  In  total  disregard  of  his  pledges  of  safe 
conduct,  the  tsar  treated  these  envoys  with  atrocious  cruelty,  and, 
after  detaininq-  them  for  two  vears  in  confinement,  sent  them  back 
to  Sweden  with  the  message  that  he  intended  to  make  himself 
master  of  Livonia.  This  was  the  signal  for  war,  and,  till  Ivan's 
death  in  1584,  the  people  of  Finland,  Livonia,  and  the  neighboring 
districts  were  subjected  to  the  most  fearful  atrocities  at  the  hands 
of  their  barbarous  foes,  wlio  burned  their  prisoners  alive  and  spared 
neither  women  nor  children.  Sweden  also  suffered  heavily  until 
the  gallant  French  nobleman,  Ponte  de  la  Gardie,  who  commanded 
a  troop  of  free  lances  in  the  Swedish  service,  gave  a  new  turn  to 
the  course  of  events,  and  ti  'getlicr  vritli  the  Swedish  captains,  Hen- 
rik  and  Klas  Florn,  recovered  Livcjnia,  and  led  his  victorious  army 
across  the  Russian  frontier.  l\':ui  on  iiis  deathbed  counseled  his 
son  Feodor  to  make  peace  v\"ith  Sweden,  whose  military  talent  the 
Russians  had  learned  to  respect.  Johan,  liowever,  refused  to  agree 
to  any  terms  anrl  thus  entailed  ujxm  his  kingdom  dr.ring  the  rest 
of  his  reign  the  continuance  of  a  costly  and  destrticti\'e  war. 

Three  years  after  Johan's  death  Duke  Karl  settled  a  favorable 

■>  A  silver  coin  rani^'iii;^  in  value  between  ?r.i5  and  60  cents,  though  usually 
worth  a  little  over  Si. 


168  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  V  I  A 

1592-159*. 

peace  with  Russia  by  which  Esthonia  and  Narva  were  secured  to 
Sweden,  while  Kexholm  and  some  other  places  on  the  confines 
of  Finland  were  rcstc>rcd  to  the  tsar.  Klas  Idcniing-,  the  powerful 
governor  general  of  I'inland,  resisted  the  surrender  of  Kexholm, 
and  it  was  not  until  1597  that  Sweden  was  able  to  carry  out  its  part 
of  the  peace. 

Johan's  death  occurred  in  the  autumn  of  1592  at  his  palace 
in  Stockholm.  Karl  at  once  assumed  the  direction  of  affairs  until 
the  wishes  of  Sigismund  could  be  known.  In  this  respect  he  was 
simply  continuing  to  retain  the  power  which  had  been  confided  to 
him  by  King  Johan,  three  years  before,  but.  foreseeing  the  policy 
that  his  Catholic  nephew  would  probably  pursue  in  regard  to  ques- 
tions of  religion,  he  determined  to  settle  the  government  of  the 
Swedish  church  before  Sigismund's  arrival.  A  meeting  of  the 
clergy  and  representatives  of  the  other  orders  of  the  state  was. 
therefore,  called  at  Upsala  in  1593.  in  which,  after  prolonged  and 
stormy  discussion,  the  Augsburg  Confession  of  Faith,  adopted  by 
tlic  Lutherans  of  Germany,  was  recognized  as  the  established  cult 
of  Swc('Cn.  "  Xow.*'  said  the  president  of  the  assemldy.  "  Sweden 
is  as  one  man,  and  we  have  one  God."  The  Swedes  regard  the 
adoption  of  the  Upsala  }vI6ta  as  one  of  the  chief  events  in  their 
religious  history,  as  indeed  it  is.  since  it  settled  finally  the  dog- 
matic Ciiaracter  of  the   Swedish   Reformed   Church. 

After  great  opposiu'on  tlie  Polish  estates  consented,  on  the 
oeath  of  Johan,  to  jicrmit  Sigismund  to  return  to  S^veden.  and 
\ote(l  a  sum  of  200,000  gulden  in  order  that  he  might  accomplish 
the  joiriTicy  in  the  state  beiitting  his  rank.  After  a  tedious  and 
'^tormv  vovage  from  Dantzig.  where  Klas  Fleming,  the  powerful 
g  i\  crnor  (vf  Finland,  met  him  with  a  squadron  of  Swedish  vessels, 
Sigi^niu.iid  and  his  (|uccn  readied  Stockholm  in  Scptem])cr,  1593. 
attcMi'lc'l  Ijy  a  brilliant  retinue  of  Polish  gentlemen,  and  accom- 
prinic'l  ]>y  tliC  Papal  leg;ite.  .\laia-S])ina.  Duke  Karl  stood  ready 
on  t]:c  castle  bridge  tf)  welcome  tlie  young  king,  and  b}-  his  side  was 
.\l):v;l!r;in  \ngcrnian!iiis,  tlie  n.ewly  elected  Lntlieran  primate  r)f 
l^wcdcn.  wlsri-c  foii'iner  /.ealMiis  op])osition  to  johan's  litnrgv  made 
hi-  a])])C,,'u  ance  a^  unwelcome  to  the  king  and  his  friends  as  the 
sight  of  a  l\(.]nrin  prelate  was  distasteful  to  the  Swedes. 

'1  hi-;  (pi-od--  wa,^  ominous  of  th.e  general  situation:  the  diver- 
^it\-  of  friiih  would  iidt  down.  I'd'rsl  differences  arose  between  the 
uncK'  a!i'l  nt-jdicw  :  aiid  the  duke,  returning  in  haste  to  his  own  do- 


RISE     OF     SWEDEN  169 

1593-1594 

minions,  left  the  council  to  manage  as  they  best  could  a  king  who 
rarely  summoned  them  into  his  presence  and  kept  almost  entirely 
to  the  society  of  his  Polish  friends  and  Jesuit  admirers.  Some  of 
the  Swedish  nobles,  as  Klas  Fleming  and  others,  who  were  at 
feud  with  Duke  Karl,  attended  the  royal  court,  and  a  few  even  pro- 
fessed their  adhesion  to  the  king's  religion ;  but  the  majority  of  the 
people  looked  with  vexation  and  distrust  upon  the  Catholic  cere- 
monials which  were  introduced  into  some  of  the  Stockholm 
churches. 

On  the  occasion  of  a  solemn  mass  for  the  repose  of  the  soul 
of  the  late  king,  the  Swedes  and  Poles  came  to  blows  and  blood 
was  shed  wdthin  the  halls  of  worship.  Foreign  Jesuits  and  Swed- 
ish Lutherans  preached  against  each  other  from  the  different  pulpits 
of  the  capital.  While  Sigismund  was  refusing  to  ratify  the  reso- 
lutions of  Upsala,  or  to  confirm  the  election  of  Angermannus  as 
primate  of  Sweden,  the  council  were  insisting  upon  these  very 
points  as  the  condition  on  whicli  alone  they  would  grant  supplies 
for  the  king's  coronation.  Tlie  estates  assembled  at  Upsala  for- 
bade the  Papal  legate  to  take  part  in  any  ]:)ublic  ceremonial,  and 
threatened  the  Jesuits  \\'ith  death  if  they  entered  within  the  cathe- 
dral doors,  to  which  declaration  Sigismund  replied  defiantly  that  it 
behooved  the  estates  to  learn  the  difference  between  an  hereditary 
and  an  elective  crown,  and  that  his  conscience  forbade  him  to 
change  his  religion.  As  the  monarch  of  an  hereditary  kingdom, 
professing  a  different  faith  from  his  own,  lie  would  not,  hovrever, 
he  said,  molest  that  faith  unless  the  estates  should  refuse  liberty 
of  belief  to  those  who  shared  his  faith. 

In  the  spring  of  1594  Sigismund  met  the  estates  at  Upsala  and 
was  crowned  with  much  ceremony  in  the  cathedral  church,  but 
not  until  he  had  been  forced  by  his  uncle  and  the  council  to  sign 
a  charter  confirming  the  religious  liberty  tb,at  ]i;i(l  l)ccii  secured  by 
the  assembly  at  Upsala  the  previous  year.  Sigismund.  witli  his 
habitual  weakness  and  insincerity,  agreed  to  everything  demanded 
of  him  at  Upsala,  yet  almost  as  soon  as  lie  reached  Stocldiolm  he 
began  to  evade  all  the  obligations  ulu'cli  ho  liad  incurred.  Cntlr- 
olic  schools  and  cliurchcs  were  Ojiened,  tlie  I'rotestant  services  were 
interfered  with,  and  the  safety  of  tliose  ulio  atten(kMl  tliem  was  .-o 
much  endangered  as  to  make  it  necessary  to  go  armed  I0  cliurch. 
Xo  redress  could  be  ()])taine<!  from  the  k'ing,  w'lo,  after  apjioini 
ing  Catholic  governors  (jver  ever\-  pnn-ince,  returned,  to   Poland. 


ITO  SCANDINAVIA 

1594-1598 

The  council  at  Stockliolm  in  the  meantime  declared  that  no  Swed- 
ish king  could  govern  from  abroad,  and  that  unless  Sigismund 
returned  to  Sweden  without  delay,  a  regent  must  be  named  to  act 
for  him.  Thus  beset  the  king  reluctantly  appointed  his  uncle  to 
govern  in  concert  with  the  council  of  state,  but  at  the  same  time 
he  dispatched  secret  orders  to  the  Catholic  provincial  governors  not 
to  honor  the  regent's  government. 

The  duke  and  the  council  likewise  had  their  feud.  Even  be- 
fore the  surrender  of  Kexholm  there  had  been  an  open  rupture 
between  them,  and  Karl  had  appealed  to  the  diet,  with  the  result 
that  he  had  been  at  once  named  by  them  governor  general  of 
Sweden,  and  all  his  acts  approved  and  confirmed.  From  that 
moment  he  appeared  as  the  representative  of  the  bondar  and  lower 
landholders  of  the  kingdom,  while  the  higher  nobles,  whose  ex- 
cessive power  he  aimed  to  crush,  were  compelled  eitlier  to  submit 
or  to  leave  tlie  kingdom,  and  carry  their  grievances  to  the  Polish 
court.  The  duke  displayed  the  most  consummate  tact  and  abilities 
of  the  highest  order  in  dealing  with  the  opposition,  k'irst  effec- 
tually suppressing  the  rebellion  of  the  peasantry  in  Finland,  known 
as  the  War  of  Clubs  (Klubbckrigct) ,  and  then  directing  his  ener- 
gies to  the  extirpation  of  Catholicism,  he  at  last  found  himself 
strong  enough  to  meet  and  overcome  the  Polish  army  which  Sigis- 
mund,  in  1 598.  brought  to  Sweden  for  the  purpose  of  compelling 
him  to  resign  his  power.  At  Stangebro.  near  Linkoping,  the  rival 
forces  met,  and  after  a  sharp  engagement  tlic  royal  army  was  com- 
pletely routed,  and  Sigismund  was  forced  to  agree  to  the  terms 
proposed  by  his  uncle.  Karl  insisted  upon  the  disbanding  and 
dismissal  of  Sigismund's  nobles,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Poland, 
and  the  summoning  within  a  period  of  fou'"  months  of  a  diet  of 
all  tlie  e-^tates  of  Sweden,  by  wliose  decision  the  fu.turc  government 
of  the  kingdom  \v;is  to  be  regulated.  Sigismund  fled  tlie  country, 
leaving  his  friends  to  figlu  ctnd  suffer  in  his  cause  unaided. 

Tlie  year  following  the  council  ;ind  estates  of  Sweden  sent  en- 
voys to  Poland,  dcn'.ruiding  tlie  immcdir'.tc  retm-n  of  the  royal  fugi- 
tive, in  default  of  which  ihey  declared  th.e  Swedish  ihronc  forfeit, 
and  re(|uii'ing  that  in  that  case  he  should  send  Iii^  ^-on  \dadislav  to 
Su'edcii,  \\iihin  a  period  of  six  nionth<,  to  be  bn  night  up  in  the 
Lutheran  faith,  in  ])re])aration  for  his  future  accession  to  the 
throne.  At  the  same  time  the  duke  .advanced  with  an  armv  into 
h'iniand,  where  Sigismund  had  ])owerful  friends  among  the  great 


RISEOF     SWEDEN  171 

1598-1604 

nobles,  reducing-  the  province  in  a  short  campaign  to  complete 
submission  and  avenging  the  enmity  which  the  nobility  had  dis- 
played toward  him  by  the  summary  execution,  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  of  twenty-nine  of  their  leaders.  In  the  meantime,  as 
Sigismund  had  paid  no  heed  to  the  demands  of  the  council  and 
estates  of  the  realm,  he  and  his  heirs  were  declared  to  have  no  fur- 
ther claims  on  the  allegiance  of  the  Swedish  people.  The  rights 
of  Duke  Johan  of  East  Gothland,  as  the  younger  son  of  the  late 
King  Johan,  were  then  taken  into  consideration.  With  the  refusal 
of  that  prince  to  be  considered  as  a  candidate  to  the  Swedish 
throne,  the  last  obstacle  to  Duke  Karl's  accession  was  removed. 
He  was  proclaimed  king  at  Markoping  in  1604. 

Sigismund  continued  till  his  death,  in  1632,  to  reign  over 
Poland,  whose  national  credit  and  prosperity  were  severely  injured 
by  his  incapacity  for  government  and  his  bigoted  intolerance.  He 
left  two  sons,  Vladislav  and  John  Casimir,  both  of  whom  became 
in  turn  kings  of  Poland. 

Karl,  or  Charles,  IX.  of  Sweden,  as  we  should  prefer  to 
call  him,  was  the  only  one  of  Gustaf  Vasa's  sons  who  inherited  his 
good  sense  and  steadiness  of  purpose,  as  well  as  his  abilities.  All 
the  brothers  had  been  learned,  able  men,  but  Karl,  the  youngest, 
alone  knew  how  to  turn  his  talents  to  account.  Tie  was  a  stern 
foe,  and  knew  not  how  to  forgive  an  enemy,  but  he  was  a  patient 
friend  and  a  just  man.  Like  his  father,  he  combined  the  power  of 
looking  closely  into  details  and  keeping  watch  upon  the  manage- 
ment and  expenditure  of  the  smallest  sums  of  money  in  his  ov/n 
household,  with  the  capacity  for  laying  vast  plans  for  the  future 
greatness  of  his  kingdom.  It  is  related  that  he  carried  his  frugality 
so  far  as  to  direct  that  the  queen  herself  should  measure  out  the 
yarn  and  thread  used  by  her  maidens  in  weaving  and  sewing.  On 
the  other  hand,  hiis  history  shows  that  from  the  very  beginning 
of  his  struggles  with  Sigismund,  he  had  resolved  to  risk  his  for- 
tune and  even  liis  life  in  the  effort  to  make  Sweden  a  Protestant 
state;  while  the  great  object  that  he  had  in  view  during  his  latter 
vears  was  to  support  the  Protestant  cause  in.  Germany  and  to  aid 
in  crippling  the  power  of  Austria,  which  he  foresaw  would  in  time 
gather  the  Catholic  German  states  around  it  and  make  a  des- 
perate effort  to  stamp  out  the  Reformed  faith.  In  his  will  he  en- 
joined upon  his  wife,  son,  and  ne])hew  carefully  to  mru'ntain  the 
friendly  relations  which  he  had  entered  iiito  with  the  I'^lector  Pala- 


17^  SCAXDIXAVIA 

1604-1609 

line.  I'^rcderick  V.,  llie  T.atid.^Taf  Mon'tz  of  Ilessc.  and  other 
cvan.Q'cIieal  princes  of  Germany:  for  the  idea  that  Sweden  w^nild  l)e 
called  upon  to  pro\-e  her  devotion  to  the  canse  wliich  those  princes 
uplield  seemed  ever  present  to  his  mincL 

Charles  IX. "s  stru£,'-g]e  v/ith  Sigismund  is  to  be  looked  upon 
as  the  turning  point  both  of  their  religious  history  and  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  overthrow  of  the  feudal  regime  in  S\veden.  At  the 
dea.tii  of  Johan,  Sweden  was  hovering  between  Catholicism  and 
Protestantism,  and  if  the  regent-duke  had  not  settled  all  further 
dissent  bv  the  resolutions  passed  at  Upsala.  in  1593.  Svreden  would 
probably  have  been  numbered  among  the  Catholic  states  of  Europe. 
In  all  that  he  did.  Charles  always  had  the  lower  orders  with  him. 
and  he  was  well  aware  that  it  was  from  the  nobles  alone  that  he 
might  anticipate  opposition.  He  had  long  been  aware  that  a  party 
existed  in  tlie  state  v^hich  desired  to  see  an  elective  monarchy 
supersede  the  hereditary  crown  v.hich  his  father  had  secured  for 
the  \'asas.  At  the  diet  of  Linko])ing,  in  1600,  he  caused  a  number 
of  those  nobles  who  had  been  surrendered  to  him  by  Sigismund 
to  be  tried  for  treason  to  the  state,  and  for  disobedience  to  his 
orders  while  he  was  regent  of  the  kingdom.  A  few  of  these  men 
confessed  that  they  had  wished  to  subvert  the  Lutheran  religion 
and  were  otiierwisc  guilty  of  the  charges  brought  against  them, 
and  were  pardoned.  The  heads  of  the  great  families  of  Sparre. 
r.jelke,  and  Bauer  were,  however,  condemned  to  death,  while 
(thers  of  equal  rank  were  imprisoned  or  banished  from  the  king- 
dom and  their  estates  contlscated.  At  the  same  time,  the  constitu- 
tii  .n  of  the  realm  was  established  at  once  on  a  broader  b;isis  and 
more  definitely  than  hitherto.  Burghers  and  peasants  were  defi- 
r.itely  accorded  representation  in  the  deliberations  of  the  national 
diet  and  the  crown  was  made  hereditary  through  the  female  as 
well  as  the  mrde  descendants  of  the  monarch. 

\\y  his  solicitude  for  the  well";ire  of  the  lower  orders  of  the 
j)coi)le  ("harle.^  won  for  himself  the  surname  J^>ondarkongen.  On 
one-  I '('•■■:i'-'on,  wlicn  the  widow  of  a  clergyman  was  pro\ed  to  have 
had  an  iiiju^-lice  done  her  in  a  lawsuit,  he  wrote  the  unjust  judge 
that  ui']e-<  tlu;  ])oor  womrm  at  once  received  her  rights.  "  a  stick 
should  ^onn  be  dancing  the  ]K)lka  on  his  back."  Charles  encour- 
aged trade:  in.'iecd  by  laving  the  foundation^  of  the  ])orts  of  Karl- 
stad in  \'rrnilan<l.  and  of  C(")teborg.  on  the  west  coast  of  Sweden, 
he  niav  be  :-:[\(\  to  ha\e  created  the  foreiirn  commerce  of  his  king- 


RISE     OF     SWEDEN  178 

1609-1611 

dom.  Ill  the  working  of  llic  Swedish  sihcr  and  copper  mines,  also, 
he  made  great  improvements.  Fn  short  there  was  nut  a  branch  of 
industr}%  nor  a  department  in  tlie  government,  which  did  not  ex- 
perience the  benefit  of  his  able  snpervision. 

In  1609  King  Charles  sent  a  Swedisli  army,  under  Ponte  de 
la  Gardie  and  Evert  Horn,  to  reheve  ]\Ioscow  from  the  assault  of 
the  impostor.  Dmitri,  who  was  aided  by  Poland,  and  to  secure  the 
succession  of  the  Tsar  Vassili  Shuiski,  In  both  these  objects  the 
generals  were  successful,  but  a  mutiny  having  broken  out  among 
their  men  on  account  of  their  not  receiving  the  pav  promised  them 
by  the  Russians,  and  many  foreign  auxiliaries  having  gone  over  to 
the  enemy,  De  la  Gardie  and  Horn  were  forced  to  fall  back.  With 
only  400  men  they  effected  a  successful  retreat  through  the  lands 
of  their  enemies,  and  without  any  further  loss  made  their  way  to 
the  Swedish  frontiers.  Charles  sent  another  army  into  Russia  in 
161 1,  which  took  Novgorod  by  storm,  and  forced  the  Russians  to 
sign  a  treaty  whereby  they  pledged  themselves  not  to  recognize  anv 
of  the  various  pretenders,  including  Sigismund's  son,  Vladislav, 
but  to  acknowledge  the  Swedish  prince.  Karl  Philip,  as  their  tsar. 

In  Charles  IX.  Sweden  found  a  second  and  in  some  ways  even 
greater  founder  of  her  glory  than  Gustaf  Yasa.  Sweden's  great- 
est historian.  Geijer.  notes  "  his  inborn  striving  to  grasp  across 
every  limit,  beyond  every  goal,  to  set  another."  "  Except  his 
father,  no  man  before  him  exercised  so  deej^  an  influence  on  the 
Swedish  people.  ]\Iore  than  a  hundred  years  passed  away,  and  a 
like  personal  influence  was  still  reigning  upon  the  tlirone  of 
Sweden.  The  nation,  hard  to  move  save  iov  immediate  self- 
defense,  was  borne  along,  unwilling  and  yet  admiring,  rcpugp.ant 
yet  loving;  as  by  some  potent  impulsion,  following  her  Gnstaves 
and  Charleses  to  victorv.  fame,  and  to  the  verge  of  perdition." 
The  history  of  the  Swedish  people  becomes  the  history  of  her 
kings. 

The  distinctive  feature,  however,  of  Charles's  reign  and  the 
one  connecting  it  with  the  following  reign  was  the  system  of  al- 
liances which  in  his  declining  days  he  i)lanned  with  the  Protestant 
powers  of  Europe.  In  iThoS  he  sent  ambassadors  to  the  Xether- 
lands  who  offered,  in  certain  contingencies,  to  furnish,  tlic  Dutch, 
who  were  just  ccMicluding  their  struggle  against  S])ain.  1000  men 
on  horse  and  f(jot.  In  return  the  Dutch  were  to  allow  salt  to  be 
exported  from  the  Netherlands.      In   j6to  he  sent  an  embassy  to 


Hi  SCANDINAVIA 

1609-1611 

England  to  request  from  James  I.  a  continuance  of  the  same 
friendly  relations  that  had  existed  between  him  and  Queen  Eliza- 
beth and  to  propose  an  alliance  of  Eng'land.  Sweden,  France,  and 
the  Netherlands  against  Austria  and  Spain ;  and  envoys  were  on 
their  way  to  France  for  a  similar  purpose  when  the  news  of  the 
assassination  of  Henry  IV.  turned  them  back.  "  In  the  soul  of 
Charles,  perchance,  more  than  in  any  of  his  contemporaries."  says 
Geijer,  "  labored  the  burning  future  which  burst  forth  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  and  not  without  significance  was  he  wont  to  observe, 
laying  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  young  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
//  Ic  faciei  (he  will  do  it.)." 

Charles  died  in  i6it,  shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Cal- 
mar  \\'ar,  so-called,  with  Denmark.  He  left  behind  not  merely 
his  great  reputation  as  ruler,  but  also  that  of  a  poet  and  author  of 
no  mean  ability.  He  wrote  Latin  poems,  composed  numerous 
hymns  and  prayers,  which  were  long  in  use,  and  left  several 
treatises  on  political  subjects,  accounts  of  his  reign,  and  various 
j(jurnals.  which  were  made  ample  use  of  by  his  son  in  the  history 
which  he  drew  up  of  the  events  of  his  father's  time. 

Charles  was  twice  married.  By  his  first  wife,  ^vlaria  of  the 
Palatinate,  he  had  one  daughter,  Katerina,  the  ancestress  of  the 
later  Princes  I'alatine,  and  of  the  I^alatinate  branch  of  the  Vasa 
line  in  Sweden;  and  by  his  second  wife.  Kristina  of  Holstein-Got- 
turp,  he  had  two  sons,  Gustaf  Adolf  and  Karl  Philip. 


Chapter    XIV 


GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS  AND  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 

1611-1648 

GUSTAF  II.,  Adolf,  or  Gustavus  Adolphiis,  the  most  ac- 
•  complished  and  renowned  king-  of  his  times,  was  born  in 
Stockholm  in  1594.  From  the  ag-e  of  ten  his  father  com- 
pelled him  to  attend  councils  of  state  and  the  sittings  of  the  diet, 
and  soon  afterward  he  was  taught  to  receive  and  reply  to — in  Latin 
or  in  other  foreign  tongues — the  ambassadors  who  presented  their 
credentials  to  the  Swedish  king.  He  had  been  so  carefully  educated 
under  the  learned  secretary,  Johan  Skytte,  that  before  he  was  fif- 
teen he  could  speak  Latin,  German.  Dutch,  French,  and  Italian,  and 
understood  something  of  Polish  and  Russian  and  he  had  begun 
the  study  of  Greek.  Gustavus.  to  the  close  of  his  short  but  event- 
ful life,  retained  his  early  love  of  learning,  and  whenever  possible 
devoted  one  or  two  hours  daily  to  the  reading  of  history,  politics, 
and  literature  with  his  former  tutor,  Johan  Skytte.  preferring 
above  all  things,  as  liis  friend  Axel  Oxenstierna  tells  us,  to  read 
in  the  original,  Grotius's  "  Tractatiis  de  Jure  Belli  ct  Pads,"  and 
the  works  of  Xenophon,  whom  he  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  all 
military  historians. 

When  King  Charles  made  his  young  son  Grand  Duke  of  Fin- 
land, and  Duke  of  Esthonia  and  Westmannland  (in  1609),  Skytte 
accompanied  the  latter  to  his  ducal  realms  in  order  to  instruct  him 
in  the  conduct  of  public  affairs  in  accordance  with  the  regulations 
of  the  Swedish  diet,  Skytte  himself  having  made  the  laws  and  cus- 
toms of  his  country  a  special  study. 

While  Gustavus  was  keeping  court  in  his  capital,  Vesteraas, 
he  underwent  most  careful  training  in  the  art  of  war,  and  in  all 
kinds  of  military  exercises  and  ma;ieuvers ;  and  thinking  himself 
no  doubt  quite  an  expert  captain,  demanded  of  his  father,  as  a 
right  attaching  to  his  station,  that  he  should  be  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  forces  in  the  war  with  Ivussia.  .Mncli  to  his  disa])- 
pointment,  however,  the  king  refused  his  re(|uest.  and  ma'de  him 
wait  till  he  had  reached  his  sixteenth  birthday,  after  which,  in  the 

175 


1T6  SCANDINAVIA 

1611-1613 

spring  of  i6ii,  he  was,  in  accordance  with  an  old  northern  cus- 
tom, declared  worthy  of  receiving  and  carrying  arms,  and  with 
great  state  presented  by  his  father  to  the  diet,  before  whom  he  was 
solemnly  invested  with  sword  and  shield. 

At  this  moment  Christian  IV^  of  Denmark,  resenting  the  evi- 
dent determination  of  Charles  IX.  to  shut  the  Danes  from  all 
share  in  the  trade  with  Courland  and  Livonia  and  to  exact  tribute 
of  the  Lapps,  whom  Christian  IV.  regarded  as  his  own  subjects, 
on  the  ground  that  Lapland  belonged  to  Norway,  declared  war 
upon  Sweden,  and  in  April,  1611,  led  an  army  of  16.000  against 
Calmar.  The  young  Gustavus  was  now  given  an  opportunity  to 
win  his  spurs  in  good  earnest.  He  failed  in  his  attempts  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Calmar,  whose  comm.ander  presently  yielded  the  place 
to  the  Danes.  Christian  now  waged  a  devastating  war  through- 
out West  Gothland,  and  it  was  the  remembrance  of  the  horrors  thus 
wrought  that  made  Gustavus  in  after  years  so  earnest  a  convert  to 
Grotius's  doctrine,  that  war  should  be  waged  within  the  limitations 
set  by  the  law  of  nature.  At  present,  however,  he  contented  hiu]- 
self  with  retorting  Danish  cruelty  upon  Skaania.  It  was  now  sov- 
ereign against  sovereign,  for  in  August  Charles  IX.  had  died.  The 
war  continued  in  a  desultory  way  through  161 2,  but  next  year 
the  Treaty  of  Knaerad  brought  peace.  Sweden  gave  up  her  claims 
on  X'orwegian  Lapland  for  six  years,  after  which  time  that  district 
and  the  port  of  Elfsborg,  if  not  redeemed  by  the  Swedes  for  one 
million  rix  dollars,  were  to  be  united  forever  with  Denmark.  The 
Danes  did  not  believe  it  possible  for  the  Swedes  to  collect  so  large 
a  sum  in  the  time  stipulated,  but  to  their  chagrin,  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  were  met  and  the  cession  effected. 

Sweden  remained  without  a  king  for  two  months  after  tlie 
death  of  Charles  IX.  Tliis  was  due  to  the  deceased  monarch's  will, 
which,  ignoring  entirely  the  settlement  of  Linkoping  (1600),  made 
tlie  queen  dowager  and  t1ic  late  king's  nephew,  Duke  Johan.  acting 
\\\{]]  six  councilors  of  state,  the  regents  of  the  kingdom,  till  Gus- 
tavus should  attain  his  eighteenth  year.  However,  the  diet,  which 
met  at  X^ok-Tjj^ing  in  December,  i^ri,  ha\-!ng  confirmed  the  settle- 
ment of  1600,  the  regencv  now  retired,  while  Dtikc  Johan  again 
formally  renounced  all  clainT^  to  the  throne. 

After  the  conclusion  <./f  peace  with  Denmark  Gustavus  re- 
newed with  \Mg'ir  the  war  again:^t  T\ussi;i.  whose  j)eoi)1e  h;id  cliriscn 
a  native-born  ])rince  for  their  t.-ar,  to  the  derogation  of  their  [)re- 


G  U  S  T  A  A  U  S     ADO  L  P  II  IT  S 


177 


1613-1619 

vious  agreement  to  accept  Karl  Philip.  Twice  Gustavus  liiiiiself 
advanced  into  Russia  and  gained  great  successes  over  the  Russian 
leaders,  until  at  length  the  new  tsar  found  himself  forced  to  a^^ree 
to  a  peace,  w-hich  was  signed  in  1617  at  Stolbova,  a  little  town  on 
the  Ladoga  Lake.  By  this  treaty  Sweden  obtained  Ingermannland 
and  Karelia  and  an  indemnity  of  20.000  rubles,  and  recovered  all 
her  former  rights  in  Livonia,  while  Novgorod  and  all  other  Swed- 
ish conquests  in  Russia  were  given  up.  When  Gustavus  met  the 
estates  of  his  kingdom  at  Stockholm  in  1617,  he  laid  before  the 
diet  a  full  report  of  this  treaty,  and  after  drawing  a  vivid  picture 


THE  BALTIC  LAIffD 

-*i^  17  TK  CEITU/tY.  _^r 

■SHomte  Him  wssa  was  an  off 

FfiOM  r«E  3£>1  Br  5W£0Ftf 


of  the  rising  power  of  Russia,  and  the  danger  to  Sweden  of  having 
a  neighbor  on  her  flanks  w'hose  boundary  line  stretched  from  the 
Caspian  Sea  to  the  frozen  ocean,  he  showed  them  on  a  map  how. 
by  the  Peace  of  Stolbova,  Russia  was  now  com]:)letely  shut  out  from 
the  Baltic,  "  and  that,"  he  added,  "  we  will  hope,  by  God's  help, 
may  always  prove  too  wdde  a  jump  even  for  a  Russian."  The 
ground  on  which  St.  Petersburg  now  stands  was  then  Swedish,  and 
on  the  boundary  line  a  stone  was  erected,  on  which  were  carved 
the  three  crowns  of  Sweden,  surmounted  by  a  Latin  inscription : 
"  Hifc  rcg^ni  posuit  fines  Giisfav  Adolpluis  Rex  Siieomun,  faiislo 
numine  duret  opus.     Limifes  positiau.    1617." 


ITS  SCANDINAVIA 

1619-1621 

Gustavn?  next  turned  his  whole  attention  to  the  task  of  put- 
tin.q"  the  Swech'sh  constitution  upon  a  more  definite  basis,  as  his 
father  had  l)c.^un  to  do.  In  order  that  his  subjects  in  all  parts  of 
the  kin<;-dnui  mioht  have  the  opportunity  of  defending-  their  rights, 
he  established  {parliaments,  or  high  courts,  at  Stockholm  and  Abo; 
proviiled  for  the  annual  summoning-  of  the  diet,  and  left  the  four 
orders  into  which  it  was  divided  to  consider  and  decide  for  them- 
selves, in  separate  assemblies,  upon  questions  in  which  their  re- 
s])cctive  estates  were  specially  interested.  He  divided  the  nobility 
into  three  classes,  consisting-  of  counts,  barons,  or  highest  nobles, 
f)f  the  descendants  of  councilors  of  state,  and  men  of  noble  descent 
witliout  hereditary  titles  and  lands;  and  ordered  that  they  should 
meet  in  a  house  of  lords  or  "knights'  house,*'  RiddarJius,  on 
wh.ose  books  ^.11  entitled  to  a  seat  were  to  inscribe  their  names. 
He  confirmed  tlie  noble  orders  in  many  of  their  privileges  and 
immunities,  but  rendered  such  confirmation  conditional  upon  the 
assured  jjcrformance  of  services  to  the  state.  Moreover,  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  second  and  third  classes  to  noble  rank  brought  to  the 
ci-o\vn  the  interested  suj^port  of  many  infiuential  persons,  who 
might  (jtherv\-ise  have  remain.ed  politically  indifferent.  Civil  and 
military  services  were  ])ut  upon  a  permanent  basis,  and  the  two 
kinrls  of  power  definitely  separated.  To  facilitate  the  civil  adminis- 
tration, it  was  divided  among-  five  courts  or  colleges  of  state.  The 
judiciary  was  ampliiied  ar.d  completed  by  a  supreme  court  of 
a])])cal.  the  gola  liofriiif,  which  sat  at  Jonkoping.  In  the  great 
centralization  ('f  .authority,  resulting  both  from  these  reforms  and 
from  the  dominant  [)ersonality  of  the  king,  local  rights  and  govern- 
ment were  not  forgotten.  Ikit  with  the  reduction  of  the  nobility 
to  ri  pii-iiion  of  ser\-ice,  these  .also  had  to  be  put  on  a  new  footing. 
The  kingdom  \vas  dixided  into  liiii,  or  districts,  each  presided  o\-er 
b\'  a  b.'iilifl  or  ma_\-or:  and  each  town  bv  a  chief  magistrate.  Idie 
])rc-id('nt  of  thc-e  magistrates,  when  .-issemblcd  for  consultation. 
\\a>  tlie  (iZ'rrs/ii/liiiUdr  of  Stockholm,  l-^irst  of  .all.  however.  Gns- 
taxii-  w.'is  a  warrior.  I')y  a  carefullv  dcxi-^ed  svstcm  of  conscri])- 
tion.  whicii  the  old-time  juries  of  the  hundreds  were  left  to  carry 
out.  ■'](■  arn;v  ;mv1  iia\y  were  much  augmented,  .and  were  put  under 
tlic-  -;i-ir!(-i  (liM-ipliiic  in  ]'.uroj)e.  At  the  close  of  the  1"iiirtv  ^'ears' 
\\;ir  [()(). ()(,o  men.  -.f  wlmm.  ho\\e\-er,  one-h.'ilf  were  mercen:iries. 
M.  M  .(1  nii'lci"  Sw  (  <k-  ]\  a  ,]i  .]■<■. 

C  i\  imi,!   irjii-.  a--:i'lcniic^,  ,and  school>^  '^jir.ang  up  in  everv  i)art 


GUSTAVUS     ADOLPHUS  179 

1621-1629 

of  the  kingdom.  The  Upsala  University  was  enriched  with  valu- 
able mines  and  lands,  formerly  part  of  the  king's  personal  domain. 
Several  new  trading  ports,  for  example,  the  present  Goteborg, 
were  established.  In  1624  William  Usselinx,  under  Gustavns's 
patronage,  founded  the  "  South  Company  of  Sweden,"  which,  in 
1638,  erected  Fort  Christina,  on  tlie  Delaware  River,  in  America. 
New  Sweden  lasted  but  seventeen  years,  falling  in  1655  to  the 
Dutch,  but  the  far-reaching  character  of  Gustavns's  enterprise  is  in- 
dicated. Gustavus  had,  moreover,  tlie  ability  or  the  good  fortune 
to  secure  the  friendship  and  devotion  of  talented  men  in  every 
department  of  the  state,  and  at  the  moment  when  he  set  forth,  in 
1629,  on  his  fatal  but  glorious  campaign  in  Germany,  his  court 
was  celebrated  throughout  Europe  for  the  number  of  able  mili- 
tary leaders  and  statesmen  who  surrounded  the  person  of  the 
king. 

After  an  interval  of  peace  war  broke  out  again  in  1621  between 
Sweden  and  Poland,  owing  to  the  obstinacy  with  which  Sigismund 
maintained  his  pretensions  to  the  Swedish  crown.  Gustavus,  per- 
sonally conducting  the  war,  began  by  conquering  Livonia  and 
Karelia  and  the  capture  of  Riga.  He  next  advanced  into  Polish 
Prussia  and  gave  battle  at  Egnen,  on  the  Vistula,  to  Sigismund's 
troops  and  an  army  of  imperialists.  For  it  must  be  remembered 
that  both  the  emperor,  Ferdinand  II.,  and  the  king  of  Spain,  Philip 
III.,  were  Sigismund's  brothers-in-law.  Egncn  was  Init  the  first 
of  a  series  of  brilliant  victories  which  made  Gustavus's  fame  as  a 
general  European.  The  emperor  now  began  to  awake  to  the  pos- 
sible effect  of  Swedish  victory  u])on  the  religious  struggle  which 
had  already  begun  in  Germany,  and  to  see  in  Gustavus's  army  a 
formidable  menace  to  the  supremacy  of  the  Catholic  ])arty.  A  large 
imperial  army  was  thrown  into  Poland,  and  Gustavus  found  him- 
self involved  in  a  new  and  greater  war  at  a  time  when  lie  was 
especially  anxious  for  peace. 

In  this  fourth  and  last  of  his  Polish  campaigns.  Gustavus 
was  often  in  great  personal  danger.  Once  he  saved  his  life  only 
by  leaving  liis  hat  and  scabbard  in  tlie  hands  of  the  foes  wlio  had 
surrounded  liim,  in  writing  an  account  of  which  to  his  friend  and 
chancellor,  Oxenstierna,  Gustavus  remarked  that  he  had  "  never 
been  in  a  hotter  bath."  Once  a  ball  carried  off  the  sole  of  his  riglit 
boot.  On  another  occasion  a  shot  struck  him  in  (lie  stomach.  Tie 
had  his  horse  shot  from  under  him  repeatedly  and  was  forced  to 


180  S  C-  A  X  D  I  X  A  V  I  A 

1629-1630 

crawl  out  from  among  the  dead  and  dying  and  fight  on  foot  till 
another  steed  could  be  brought  for  him.  After  the  battle  of  Stuhm, 
a  truce  for  six  years  was  signed  at  Altmark  in  1C29  between 
Sweden  and  Poland,  which  left  Livonia  and  parts  of  Polish  Prus- 
sia in  the  hands  of  Gustavus. 

Gustavus  now  found  himself  free  to  furnish  the  aid  wdiich  he 
liad  long  promised  to  his  Protestant  allies  in  Germany,  A  general 
l^umpcan  war  seemed  impending.  All  the  other  European  powers 
which  h.'id  a(lo])ted  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  were  aligning 
lhcm>cl\cs  with  the  Protestant  princes  of  the  empire,  while  the 
Cathdiic  states,  excejjting  France,  whose  attitude  was  determined 
hv  special  considerations,  were  casting  in  their  lot  with  the  emperor. 
Ghristian  IV.  of  Denmark  had  helped  the  German  Protestants  to 
the  best  of  his  ability,  but  had  been  forced,  when  the  imperialists, 
under  W'allenstein,  entered  Slesvig  and  seized  upon  Jutland,  to 
accept  whatever  terms  of  peace  he  could  obtain.  Gustavus's  en- 
voys having  been  refused  admission  to  the  negotiations  between 
Christian  and  W'allenstein  at  Liibeck,  the  Swedish  monarch  now 
deemed  war  inevitable  with  the  emperor,  whose  enmity  he  had 
incurred  by  opening  his  kingdom  as  an  asylum  to  all  persecuted 
I'rcjtestants,  and  by  receiving  at  his  court  his  own  outlawed  kins- 
men, the  dukes  of  ^Mecklenburg.  Another  factor  in  the  case  was 
the  jealousy  of  W'allenstein,  who  at  this  moment  rivaled  Gustavus 
in  h"uro])e;'-n  ])rornincnce.  At  the  moment  of  opening  hostilities 
\\'ar;cn>i(jin  contributed  35.000  rix  dollars  toward  fomenting  sedi- 
tion in  Sweden.  The  great  general  of  the  imperialists  was  also 
eager  t<j  make  himself  master  of  Stralsund,  which  controlled  the 
])a-.-age  to  thic  Baltic ;  he  declared  that  he  would  never  rest  till  that 
jjlace  was  in  his  hands,  "'  even  though  it  were  bound  to  heaven 
with  chain.-  of  iron."  Gustaxais.  on  the  otlier  hand,  a])preciated 
that  if  Slraknnd  were  once  in  tlie  hands  of  the  imperialists,  his 
knropcan  career  would  be  clo^cfl  forc\'er,  a'^  would  also  that  of  his 
l:ing(lom,  an']  hi.-  ])lan-  to  help  the  Protestants  of  Germany  would, 
of  coiir.-e,  he  rfndcre(l  futile. 

Gn-ia\-ns  calk'd  together  his  diet  at  Stockholm  on  ^lay  19, 
I '^>_^o.  and  laid  before  them  an  accoimt  of  the  r)p])vcssion  and  misery 
to  whicli  thcii"  brethren  in  religion  were  reduced,  and  the  dangers 
\'.lii';li  Hirea.lened  Sweden  miless  the  advance  of  Catholic  ])ower 
I'onld  1)(  c!  <•(■], id.  Lie  then  bade  the  assembled  orders  farewell 
and   dranialiealK    i-a'-iii''-   hi-   daughter.    Christina,   a    child   of   fixe 


G  U  S  T  A  V  U  S     A  D  O  L  P  II  U  S  181 

1630-1631 

years  of  age,  in  his  arms,  he  commended  her  to  their  care  and 
fideHty  as  the  heiress  to  his  crown.  Each  of  the  estates  assured 
their  monarch  of  their  devotion.  Thereupon  intrusting  the  gov- 
ernment of  Sweden  to  a  council  of  ten,  and  appointing  his  brother- 
in-law,  the  outlawed  Count  Palatine,  John  Casimir,  director-in- 
chief  of  all  affairs  connected  with  the  levying  of  troops  and  othei' 
preparations  for  war,  Gustavus  embarked  Avith  his  army,  landing 
in  Germany  on  midsummer-day,  in  1630. 

He  had  with  him  only  15.000  men,  but  with  this  small  army, 
trusting  in  his  watchword,  "'  Cum  Deo  cl  inclricihus  aruiis;'  he 
entered  boldly  upon  the  course  he  had  elected.  At  first  circum- 
stances aided  him,  for  the  overreaching  ambition  of  V/allenstein 
had  brought  that  remarkable  man  into  disfavor  with  the  emperor, 
while  Cardinal  Richelieu,  alarmed  at  the  rapidly  rising  power  of 
the  house  of  Hapsburg,  had  guaranteed  by  the  Treaty  of  Barwiilde 
that  as  long  as  the  Swedish  king  should  keep  an  army  of  30,000 
men  on  foot  against  the  imperialists,  he  should  receive  an  annual 
subsidy  from  France  of  400,000  rix  dollars.  Some  of  the  lesser 
German  princes  also  entered  into  immediate  alliance  with  Gus- 
tavus. On  the  other  hand,  the  electors  of  Brandenburg  and 
Saxony,  standing  in  awe  of  the  emperor,  iield  aloof,  and  by  the 
obstacles  which  they  interposed  to  the  advance  of  the  Swedish 
forces  prevented  the  relief  of  }vlagdcburg.  which  consequently, 
after  a  long  and  heroic  defense,  was  comi^clled  to  submit  to  the 
forces  of  the  Catholic  League,  and  was  fortliwith  given  over  to  a 
ruthless  soldiery  and  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins.  This  terrible 
disaster  served  to  bring  the  Elector  of  Saxon}'  to  Gustavus's  side. 
In  1 63 1  Breitenfeld  was  fought  and  won  near  Leipzig  by  the  allied 
Swedish  and  Saxon  forces.  Tilly,  till  then  undefeated,  was  com- 
pelled, despite  his  superior  numbers,  to  f^ill  back  upon  the  Bavarian 
frontier  near  the  Lech.  Here,  the  following  spring,  he  was  again 
attacked  by  the  Swedes  and  again  defeated  in  a  long  and  stubborn 
contest,  in  the  course  of  which  he  himself  was  mortally  wounded. 
The  emperor  now  reluctantly  resolved  to  recall  the  indispensable 
Wallenstein,  who  had  presently  enlisted  to  his  standard  every  vaga- 
bond and  soldier  of  fortune  in  Europe.  The  rawness  of  his  recruits, 
however,  forbade  his  offering  battle ;  as,  on  the  other  side,  did  the 
meagerness  of  Gustavus's  forces.  I'^or  nine  weeks  the  two  armies 
lay  encamped  within  sight  of  each  other,  outside  the  gales  of  \'iin\- 
bcrg.   which    Wallenstein   had   threatened   and   Gusla\us   had   has- 


182  S  C  A  X  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1631-1632 

tened  to  protect.  At  length,  liaving-  failed  in  an  assault  on  Wallen- 
stein's  well-defended  camp,  and  unable  to  brini^  Iiis  wary  foe  into 
the  open  field,  Gustavus  withdrew  to  recruit  his  own  sick  and 
hung^ering'  army,  while  the  imperialist  commander,  quickly  break- 
ing- up  camp,  threw  his  forces  into  the  rich  lands  of  Saxony,  where 
they  laid  waste  everything-  before  them,  and  the  elector  in  his  dis- 
tress had  ag-ain  to  call  ui)on  the  Swedes  for  assistance. 

Gustavus  was  at  Neuburg,  in  Bavaria,  with  his  queen  when 
the  news  of  W'allenstein's  advance  upon  Saxony  reached  him.  lie 
at  once  resolved  to  force  his  antagonist  to  meet  him  in  the  open 
field.  Ordering  all  his  troops  to  advance  by  forced  marches  to 
Erfurt,  he  joined  them  there  on  October  28,  1632,  and  rapidly 
made  his  final  arrangements.  On  the  morning  of  November  i, 
after  having  passed  the  night  in  reading  and  answering  dispatches, 
and  in  sending  instructions  to  the  council  of  Sweden,  he  t(wk  lea\-e 
of  his  wife,  whom  he  commended  to  the  care  of  the  Erfurt  citizens, 
and  set  out  in  pursuit  of  his  army,  which  had  crossed  the  Saale 
on  October  30.  W'allenstein,  not  l)clieving  that  tiie  king  would 
venture  a  battle  with  his  small  force,  aggregating  but  12,000  in- 
fantry and  6500  horsemen,  had  gone  into  winter  quarters  at  Liit- 
zen,  after  sending  his  general,  Pappenheim.  to  Halle,  to  watch  the 
movements  of  the  Swedes.  The  surprise  of  the  imperialists  was 
great,  therefore,  when  they  found  that  the  Swedish  king  had  brought 
his  army  fr(»m  their  quarters  near  Xiirnberg  to  tlie  ])lain  of  Liitzen, 
and  that,  moreover,  in  an  incredibly  short  time,  although  the 
autumn  raiiis  and  the  character  of  the  ground  seemed  to  make 
the  ])assage  rif  both  men  and  horses  almost  an  impossibility.  The 
greatest  confu-ion  ])rcvailcd  in  the  im])eri;d  carn]^.  Orderlies  were 
riding  in  all  directions  to  recall  scattered  generals  ;ind  brigades. 
Soldiers  were  ke|)t  at  work  throughout  the  night,  throwing  up 
entrenrlimcnts  .along  tlie  main  road  between  Eiitzen  and  Eei])zig.  on 
the  north  side  of  which  W'allenstein  had  drawn  up  his  men  in  order 
of  battle.  W'JK'n  Gustavus  was  informed  by  spies  that  tlie  Geriu;uis 
were  (juilc  uii])rei)arcd  U  <v  his  attack,  he  exclaimed.  "  .Xow  1  truly 
Ix'licve  tli-;t  tlie  Lord  has  gi\'en  mv  enemies  into  my  hand^."'  and 
deterniinc'l  n-it  to  delay  the  assault.  Ilis  .anger  ag.ainst  tlie  im- 
])eriali-t^  ]i;id  been  greatly  .aggr.avated  during  his  m;ircli  by  the 
sight  fif  tlie  de\,-i--t;!liiiii  and  mi-erv  which  they  had  brouglil  u])on 
tlie  (-"nnhy  people.  Wliere\-er  he  p.a-sed.  r;igged.  hal  f-i;imi>lie(l 
creature-   had   cr.-iwled    fortli    from   their   ruined   huts  or   from   the 


G  U  S  T  A  V  U  S     A  D  O  L  P  H  U  S  183 

1632 

poor  shelter  of  the  leafless  woods,  and  throwing  themselves  on 
their  knees,  had  extended  their  hands  to  him  in  sui)plication.  These 
spectacles  had  moved  the  humane  monarch  profoundly.  "  These 
people,"  said  he,  "  worship  me  as  a  God ;  I  trust  I  may  not  be  pun- 
ished for  their  idolatry." 

The  morning-  of  November  6,  1632,  dawned  in  so  thick  a  mist 
that  the  two  opposing  armies  could  scarcely  see  beyond  their  re- 
spective vanguards,  though  these  were  so  near  that,  in  reconnoiter- 
ing,  they  found  themselves  face  to  face.  At  an  early  hour,  the 
Swedish  army,  which  was  composed  of  many  Scotch  as  well  as 
German  auxiliaries,  engaged  in  prayer  and  sang  Luther's  hymn, 
"'  Eine  festc  Burg  ist  tinscr  Gott,"  after  which  Gustavus  himself, 
in  a  loud  voice,  gave  out  his  favorite  hymn,  "  Jesus  Christ  imscr 
Heiland."  Clad  in  his  usual  overcoat  and  without  armor,  which 
he  had  almost  entirely  discarded  for  Iiimself  and  his  soldiers,  he 
mounted  his  horse,  and,  riding-  along  tlie  lines,  addressed  his 
Swedes  and  Finns  in  their  native  tongue,  telling  them  that  the 
enemy,  who  had  so  long  evaded  them,  was  now  within  their  reach 
and  exhorting-  them  to  fight  for  their  God,  their  country,  and  their 
king.  "  If  you  fight  as  I  expect  of  you,"  he  said  in  conclusion, 
"  you  shall  have  no  cause  to  complain  of  your  reward,  but  if  you 
do  not  strike  like  men,  not  a  bone  in  your  bodies  will  ever  find  its 
way  back  to  Sweden."  To  the  Germans  he  spoke  strongly  and 
earnestly,  calling  upon  them  to  follow  him  bravely,  to  "  trust  in 
God,  and  to  believe  that  with  His  help  they  might  that  day  gain 
a  victory,  which  should  profit  them  and  their  remotest  descend- 
ants," "  But  if  you  fail  me  to-day,"  he  added,  "  your  religion, 
your  freedom,  your  welfare  in  this  world  and  the  next  are  lost." 
Wallenstein,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained  a  characteristic  silence 
in  the  presence  of  his  forces. 

Gustavus  had  expected  to  be  reinforced  by  Duke  George  of 
Liineburg  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  had  both  made  great 
protestations  of  gratitude  and  devotion,  and  promised  to  bring 
their  troops  to  his  aid,  but  neither  of  tliem  put  in  an  appearance. 

The  king,  who  himself  commanded  the  right  wing  of  his 
army,  was  foremost  of  all  to  advance  upon  the  enemy.  Waving 
his  drawn  sword  above  his  head  as  the  Swedes  and  Finns  responded 
with  the  clash  of  arms  and  loud  cheers  to  his  address,  he  cried  out, 
"  Jesus,  Jesus,  let  us  fight  tliis  day  for  Tliy  holy  name,"  and  giving 
the  word  of  command,  he  .-idvanced,  while  tlie  whole  army,  as  eacli 


184  SCAN  1)1  \  A^  I  A 

regiment  began  to  move,  caught  up  the  Swedisli  watchword.  "  God 
with  us."  The  enemy  awaited  the  attack  on  tlic  fartlier  side  of  the 
road,  skirted  by  deep  ditches,  and  here  tlie  Swedish  infantry  were 
met  with  such  overwhehning  numbers  that  tliey  wavered  and  fell 
back.  On  perceiving  this,  Gustavus.  who  had  led  his  own  division 
over  the  road,  hastened  at  the  head  of  a  troop  of  his  Smaaland 
cavalry  to  the  help  of  the  infantry.  Before  he  could  reach  the  road. 
however,  the  three  brigades  under  Count  Xiels  Brahe,  which 
formed  the  Swedish  center,  had  advanced  to  the  charge  and  had 
taken  three  batteries  by  storm,  and  had  broken  two  f)f  the  enemy's 
squares.  The  king  now  charged  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry  and  was 
soon  in  the  midst  of  the  enemy,  with  only  a  few  of  his  personal 
attendants  near  him,  since  the  heavy  mist,  after  partially  clearing, 
had  become  so  dense  that  his  troop  had  not  been  able  to  see  in 
which  direction  he  had  advanced.  At  that  moment  a  pistol  shot 
struck  Gustavus's  horse  in  the  neck,  a  second  shattered  his  left 
arm,  and,  while  he  was  turning  to  beg  the  Duke  of  Lauenburg 
to  helj)  him  from  the  field,  as  he  was  also  wounded  in  the  foot  and 
unable  to  dismount,  a  ball  entered  his  back  and  he  fell  from  his 
horse,  which,  however,  dragged  him  a  short  distance  with  one  foot 
still  in  the  stirrup. 

Dismay  spread  through  the  ranks  of  the  Swedes  when  they  saw 
the  king's  horse,  with  empty  saddle  and  bleeding  mane,  galloping 
wildly  along  the  road :  but  soon  their  terror  changed  to  fury.  De- 
manding eagerly  of  Duke  Bernhard  of  Saxe-Weimar  to  be  led  again 
to  the  assault,  they  bore  down  u})on  the  enemy,  and  after  a  llcrce 
struggle,  which  was  ])rolonge(l  till  nightfall,  achieved  a  brilliant 
victory,  remaining  masters  of  the  field  and  ca])turing  all  of  W'allen- 
stein's  artillery  and  ammunition.  The  close  of  the  battle  had 
Ijcen  the  ficrrest.  fc^r  at  the  moment  when  Duke  Bernhard  thought 
that  the  day  was  won.  I'apjjenheim  a])peared  on  the  field,  and 
with  frc^h  troojjs  renewed  the  attack  npcn  the  wearied  .Swedes. 
But  t\en  tliat  une.\i)ected  repul>e  could  UfA  long  retard  the  laUer"s 
victcjry,  altiiougli  it  thinned  the  Swedish  r;niks  fearfnlly  and  left 
line  uijiiii  line  of  their  troops  l>'ing  dead  ti])on  the  grotuid  in  the 
order  (.1  array,  'flic  battle  of  Liitzen  was  won  against  double 
tlie  vict'.r'.-  tMrec-.  At  its  clo>e  u.ooo  dead  or  wounded  men  lay 
upon  tlie  field.  aniMiig  the  f(jrmer  the  m<,)narch  of  Sweden,  'flu- 
Ijody  ot  tlie  dead  king  was  carried  to  the  rear  tlie  same  night,  and 
dejj(Asited  in  tlie  church  of  the  little  village  of  Meuchen,  where  one 


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GUSTAVUS     ADOLPHUS  185 

■1632-1634 

of  the  attendant  Swedish  officers  made  a  funeral  address  and  the 
schoohnaster  of  the  place  read  the  prayer. 

Next  morning  it  was  borne  in  a  rough  deal  coffin  to  Weissen- 
fels,  and  thence,  after  embalming,  to  the  castle  church  of  Witten- 
burg,  where  for  a  time  it  rested,  being  finally  conveyed  to  Sweden 
under  the  guard  of  the  400  survivors  of  the  Smaaland  cavalry  at 
whose  head  the  king  had  fallen.  In  the  summer  of  1634  the  re- 
mains were  laid  with  great  solemnity  within  the  grave  that  Gus- 
tavus  had  caused  to  be  prepared  for  himself  in  Riddarholm 
church.  The  day  after  the  battle  a  heavy  stone,  known  to  the 
present  day  as  the  Schwedenstein,  was  dragged  by  some  peasants, 
under  the  direction  of  the  king's  groom,  Jacob  Eriksson,  from  a 
neighboring  height  to  mark  the  place  where  Gustavus  fell ;  but, 
unable  to  move  it  further,  they  left  it  wnthin  forty  paces  of  the 
exact  spot  beside  the  bank  of  a  field,  where  it  remained  till  it  was 
replaced,  in  1832,  by  the  monument  erected  by  the  German  people 
in  grateful  remembrance  of  their  champion. 

Although  the  imperialists  experienced  a  most  decisive  defeat 
at  Liitzen,  the  joy  of  the  Catholics  on  learning  that  their  most 
dreaded  foe  was  no  more  fully  equaled  the  sorrow  and  appre- 
hension which  the  news  of  Gustavus's  death  spread  through  every 
Protestant  country.  In  Gustavus  the  Swedes  lost  the  noblest  and 
greatest  of  their  kings,  and  the  world  at  large  one  of  the  bravest  and 
most  unselfish  rulers  that  ever  filled  a  throne.  "  Exalted  by  feel- 
ings of  the  most  devoted  piety,  his  soul  was  that  of  an  apostle,  and 
it  is  not  only  calumny,  but  a  grave  historical  error  to  mistrust 
the  sincerity  of  his  declarations.  In  his  eyes  the  victory  of  the 
Hapsburgs  meant  not  only  calamity  for  the  world,  but  an  outrage 
upon  God  himself,  and  in  God's  c|uarrel  he  armed,  ready  to  perish 
for  his  faith,  but  certain  that  the  Eternal  covered  him  with  His 
right  hand."  '  In  person,  Gustavus  Adolphus  recalled  the  type 
of  man  that  the  Northmen  associated  with  the  image  of  the  brav- 
est and  strongest  of  their  early  national  hemes.  He  was  tall  and 
well  made;  of  fresh  ruddy  hue.  fair  skin,  and  clear  blue  eyes,  and 
with  light  yellow  hair,  ain])lc  beard  and  bushy  mustache,  which 
gained  for  him  among  fijrcigncrs  the  name  of  the  "  Gold-king  of 
the  North."  He  had  a  longisli  face,  with  a  grave,  earnest  expres- 
sion, and  there  was  a  nitnral  grace  and  dignity  in  his  bearing  and 
in  all  his  movements,  wliicli  iiirtTased  llie  charm  and  attractiveness 
of  his  person  and   manncM-. 

^Lavissc  and  Kamhaud,  vol.  V.  p.  547. 


186  SCANDINAVIA 

1632-1642 

Althougli  many  great  plans  which  Gnstavus  had  formed  for 
the  benefit  of  his  corehgionists  perished  with  him,  the  fame  of 
Sweden  was  well  maintained  for  some  time  after  his  death  by  his 
generals  and  by  his  devoted  friend  and  minister,  Oxenstierna,  one 
of  the  greatest  personages  of  Swedish  history,  who  induced  the 
Protestant  princes  of  south  Germany  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with 
Sweden  in  1633,  and  continued  the  alliance  with  France.  At  the 
same  time.  Oxenstierna,  in  concert  with  four  other  great  officers 
of  state,  conducted  the  regency  during  the  minority  of  Gustavus's 
only  child,  Christina,  following  in  all  respects  the  directions  laid 
down  by  the  king  himself  before  he  left  Sweden. 

Tlie  death  of  Gustavus,  nevertheless,  had  its  effect  upon  the 
fortune  of  Swedish  arms  in  Germany,  and  when,  in  1634,  the 
brave  but  overhasty  Gustaf  Horn,  in  consequence  of  jealousy  on 
the  part  of  Duke  Bernhard  of  Saxe-Weimar,  nearly  brought  an 
inglorious  defeat  upon  the  Swedes  at  Nordlingen,  where  he  was 
made  captive,  the  north  German  princes  began  to  withdraw  from 
their  alliance  witli  Sv^•eden.  and  before  another  year  the  majority 
had  followed  the  example  set  by  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  made  a 
humiliating  peace  witli  the  emperor. 

They  seemed  even  to  aim  at  expelling  the  Swedes  from  Ger- 
many: and  although  Richelieu  sent  an  arm}-  over  the  frontier  to 
cooperate  with  tlie  Swedish  forces,  he  was  an  untrustwortliy  ally 
at  best.  Idius  after  inducing  Duke  Bernhard  to  enter  the  service 
of  I^Vance.  the  cardinal-minister,  on  the  death  of  tliat  n()i.)lcnian. 
!^uddenly  in  1639,  incorporated  his  troops  in  the  h^rcnch  army  and 
employed  tliem  to  conquer  Alsace  for  France.  Gustavus  liad,  how- 
ever, left  otlier  able  commanders,  who  gloriously  maintained  his 
reputatir»n.  The  disaster  at  Nordlingen  was  soon  effaced  by  the 
\-ictory  oi  Johan  Banner  at  W'ittstock,  in  Brandenburg.  Not  con- 
tent witli  \h]<  sign;il  success.  Banner  pushed  his  way  to  tlie  \-ery 
heart  r)f  German}-,  threatened  Vienna,  a.nd  stu'prised  I\alislxtn. 
wiicrc  lie  wnuM  Ivdvc  captured  the  cm])eror  and  tlie  members  of  the 
did.  tlien  luiMing  its  sittings,  liad  not  a  sudden  tli.'iw  come  on 
and  prevented  llic  i):;s<age  of  the  Dajuibe.  At  tli.at  period  tlie 
.Swede-;  were  tlie  onl\-  troops  who  ventured  upon  a  winter  cam- 
paign, and  banner'-  German  auxiliaries,  unaccur  N  irne(]  fn  tlie  hard- 
<lii])-  ini]io^ed  n;,.  n  tlieni.  -oon  deserted  liini.  wlnle  his  ally,  the 
l)uke  >>\  \\e;i!ar.  len  liini  almost  encircded  1)\-  enemies.  l^xen 
nnder  tlie-e  de-jjera'.e  c;rcuin^tance>,  he  succeeded  in  safel\-  accom- 


G  U  S  T  x\V  U  S     A  D  O  L  P  H  U  S  187 

1642-1645 

plishing  a  retreat  to  Halberstadt  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  masterly  in  miHtary  history,  though  it  cost  Banner  his  Hfe. 
Torstensson,  upon  whom,  because  of  his  skillful  and  rapid  maneu- 
vers, was  bestowed  the  name,  "  the  Swedish  Lightning,"  succeeded 
to  the  command. 

In  the  campaign  of  1642  the  Swedes,  under  this  commander, 
advanced  upon  Vienna,  defied  the  armies  of  the  emperor  in  his  own 
states,  and  concluded  the  campaign  \vith  a  brilliant  victory  at 
Breitenfeld  over  the  Archduke  Leopold  and  the  great  Piccolomini, 
and  the  capture  of  Leipzig  from  the  imperialists.  While  complet- 
ing arrangements  for  penetrating  still  further  into  southern  Ger- 
many, Torstensson  was  recalled  to  Sweden  by  secret  orders  from 
the  council  of  state. 

The  cause  of  this  sudden  recall  was  the  anxiety  felt  by  the 
Swedish  regents  at  the  turn  which  affairs  were  taking  in  Denmark, 
whose  king.  Christian  IV.,  it  was  evident  was  preparing  to  make 
war  upon  Sweden.  To  frustrate  his  designs,  Torstensson  left 
Moravia,  and  in  an  incredibly  short  time  crossed  the  frontier  and 
threw  his  troops  into  the  Holstein  lands,  on  pretense  of  requiring 
food  and  quarters  for  them.  At  the  same  time  Gustaf  Horn  led 
an  army  into  Skaania,  Thus  forestalled  at  all  points,  the  Danes 
were  forced  to  meet  the  Swedes  as  successful  invaders,  instead  of 
carrying  the  Vv'ar  into  Sweden,  as  they  had  intended.  By  the 
peace,  signed  at  Bromsebro  in  Bleking,  in  1645,  ^^^^  islands  of  Goth- 
land and  Oesel  and  other  Danish  territories  were  handed  over  to 
Sweden  in  pledge  of  peace,  for  thirty  years,  after  which  they 
might  be  redeemed  by  Denmark.  i\t  the  same  time  the  Swedes 
secured  complete  exemption  from  all  the  long-established  tolls  in 
the  Sound,  and  obtained  a  great  diminution  in  these  charges  for 
their  allies,  the  Dutch,  After  the  Danish  war  Torstensson  made  a 
fourth  successful  campaign  into  the  hereditary  lands  of  the  em- 
peror, and  inflicted  upon  the  imperialists  at  Jaukowitz  the  worst 
defeat  they  had  sustained  during  the  war.  This  battle,  which 
raged  with  great  furv  during  the  wiic/ie  of  an  intensely  cold  and 
stormy  day  in  Feljruary,  1645,  cost  the  emperor  the  lives  of  4000 
of  his  best  troops,  and  left  in  the  hands  of  the  victorious  Swedes 
4000  wounded,  including  the  chief  commander.  Field  Marshal 
Hatzfeld,  and  fi\'e  generals,  with  twenty-six  field  pieces  and  sev- 
enty-seven standards.  Torstensson  again  penetrated  into  Austria 
and  again  brought  his  troops  within  sight  of  the  walls  of  Vienna. 


188  SCANDINAVIA 

1645-1648 

At  this  very  moment,  however,  when  everything  seemed  to  be  favor- 
ing the  great  Swedish  commander,  he  was  forced  to  retreat,  for 
France  had  failed  to  send  the  reinforcements  which  alone  could 
enable  the  Swedes  to  hold  their  ow'n  in  the  midst  of  the  enemy's 
land.  Torstensson  was,  in  consequence,  forced  to  fall  back  upon 
Bohemia.  There,  because  of  increased  feebleness  and  suffering,  he 
resigned  the  command,  which  was  at  once  intrusted  to  the  already 
renowned  Karl  Gustaf  Wrangel. 

In  1648  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  brought  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  to  a  close,  Sweden  received  Western  Pomerania  with  Rygen, 
the  Island  of  Wollin,  the  mouths  of  the  Oder,  Stettin,  the  bishopric 
of  Verden,  the  archbishopric  of  Bremen,  and  Wismar  in  ]\Iecklen- 
burg;  also  an  indemnity  of  five  millions  of  rix  dollars.  The  terri- 
tory gained,  however,  did  not  cease  being  a  part  of  the  empire,  and 
the  indemnity  was  never  paid.  Sweden  emerged  from  tlie  strug- 
gle, therefore,  rich  in  military  renown,  but  poorly  remunerated 
for  her  sacrifices  of  the  last  eighteen  years.  It  is  impossible,  more- 
over, to  look  upon  Sweden's  participation  in  the  last  period  of  the 
war  in  the  same  light  as  upon  Gustavus  Adolphus's  part.  Then 
Sweden,  under  a  leader  of  most  exalted  piety,  was  fighting  the 
battles  of  Protestantism,  perhaps  mistakenly,  yet  nobly.  Subse- 
quently the  Swedish  government  is  too  apparently  the  pensioner 
of  France  in  the  latter's  war  against  the  house  of  Austria. 


Chapter    XV 

DENMARK   IN   ECLIPSE.     1513-1648 

DESPITE  the  odium  of  the  blood  bath  Christian  11.  01 
Denmark  was  a  wise  and  benevolent  ruler,  who  carefully 
scrutinized  every  detail  of  civil  life,  and  in  otlier  Vv^avs  dis- 
played great  capacity  and  enlightenment,  lie  not  only  caused 
several  highly  beneficial  buvs  to  be  passed  in  favor  of  tlie  tracliur!; 
and  v/orking  classes  of  the  country,  but  he  sliowed  hini>elf  ai  all 
times  anxious  to  dilTuse  education  among  the  very  meanest  of  his 
subjects,  and  was,  in  fact,  the  first  king  in  northern  Europe  to 
open  poor-schools  in  his  dominions.  In  his  earnest  desire  to  i)ro- 
mote  the  educat'on  of  his  people  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  order  the 
burghers  of  Copenhagen  and  all  other  large  cities  in  tlie  three  Scan- 
dinavian kingdoms,  under  ])enalties  ''f  h.eavy  mone}'  lines,  to  com- 
pel their  children  to  learn  to  read.  Vv-rite,  and  cij^lier ;  ;ind  to  see  that 
when  they  grew  older  the}'  were  instructed  in  sr.rne  trade  or  otlier. 
He  also  caused  better  books  to  be  prejiarcd  and  jv.antcd  for  ilie 
public  schools,  while  he  ordered  tliat  the  children  who  were  in- 
tended for  the  learned  professions  should  not  be  boarded  with  un- 
tutored folk',  lest  in  tlteir  ea.rlier  vears  thev  might  be  (an^lii  \'iciiuis 
])ractices  which  thc\'  could  ne\'er  again  I'orgei.  lie  iii;i(le  ilie  tirst 
attempt  at  establishing  v.  post  throughout  the  country  !)_\  r(.:cniit- 
ing  a  band  of  post  runners,  who  both  A\"inter  and  ::unr.ricr  passe. 1 
between  Copenhagen  and  the  cirief  towns,  carrying  letters,  fi^r 
which  they  were  paid  on  the  ba.sis  01  mileage,  lie  also  caused 
wayside  iniis  to  be  erected  at  certain  distances  alr)ng  ihe  roads,  and 
ordered  that  if  travelers  recei\-ed  daniage  on.  :iccount  ol  the  inijicr- 
fections  of  tlie  public  roads,  the  parishes  in  which  the  deiecllve 
highways  lay  should  be  comr)elicd  to  make  re])aration.  Me  for- 
bade the  nobles  and  higher  clergy  tlieir  ancient  ■'  strrniii  ia'glit," 
rfcr.,  the  alleged  right  to  seize,  as  tliey  had  hitlierto  (iono,  ui)on 
wrecks;  and  when  the  l)isho])^  oi  Jutland,  who  drew  good  inconi.es 
from  this  practice,  laid  complaints  before  him  of  tlieir  heavy  li'''--es, 

ISO 


190  SCANDINAVIA 

1516-1520 

saying  there  was  "  nothing  in  the  Bible  against  taking  stranded 
goods."  liis  only  answer  was,  "  Let  the  lord  prelates  go  back  and 
Icarn  the  eighth  commandment  by  heart."  Likewise  when  the 
clergy  begged  that  for  the  good  of  the  church  he  should  allow 
witches  and  wizards  to  be  burned  as  in  the  olden  times,  and  not  be 
let  off  with  a  mere  whipping  as  he  had  decreed,  he  asked  them  if 
they  had  ever  read  the  sixth  commandment? 

Christian  created  the  Danish  navy,  wherewith  he  put  down 
pirates  on  the  Baltic  and  made  the  Hansers  of  Liibeck  respect  his 
authority.  At  the  same  time  he  restricted  the  commercial  privi- 
leges of  the  Hansers  and  extended  those  of  his  own  subjects.  He 
endeavored  to  make  Copenhagen  the  center  of  the  Baltic  trade 
and  encouraged  Dutch  banking  houses  to  come  thither.  He  caused 
cciual  weiglits  and  measures  to  be  used  in  all  towns.  The  growth 
of  flowers  and  vegetables  he  made  his  chief  diversion,  and,  to  teach 
tlie  Danes  how  to  manage  gardens  and  orchards,  he  sent  by  the 
advice  of  his  queen,  Isabella,  sister  of  Emperor  Charles  V.,  for 
1-^lemish  gardeners,  who  were  then  the  best  in  Europe.  These  men 
came  to  Denmark  in  1516  and  settled  in  Amagcr.  a  small  island 
in  the  harbor  of  Copenhagen,  which  they  soon  transformed  into  a 
paradise,  and  where  from  that  time  forth  they  and  their  descend- 
ants lived.  The  Amager  peasants  still  enjoy  the  rights  that  Chris- 
tian gave  them,  and  even  to  the  present  day  they  retain  the  dress 
and  habits  of  the  Flemish  homes  of  their  forefathers,  brightening 
up  the  old  market-place  of  Copenhagen  with  their  quaint,  highly 
colored  costumes,  and  supplying  the  citizens  with  tlie  finest  fruits, 
flowers,  and  vegetables  that  can  be  raised  in  the  long  cold  winters 
and  sliort  hot  summers  of  Danish  Sjaelland.  ]\Iost  important  of 
all,  limvcver.  were  Christian's  measures  looking  to  the  mitigation 
and  gradual  abolition  of  serfdom.  Serfs  were  made  no  longer 
transferable  with  the  soil;  they  might  even  elect  to  leave  the  serv- 
ice of  a  lord  whose  treatment  of  them  they  could  show  to  have  been 
uiiju-t.  These  were  first  steps  in  the  restorati(m  of  a  free  peas- 
antry to   Denmark-. 

Christian'h  attention  was  early  drawn  to  the  Reformation 
mrn-emcnt.  At  liis  ref[uest  his  uncle,  Frederick  the  Wise  of  Sax- 
ony, in  1520  sent  to  Copenhagen  a  learned  doctor  named  Martin 
Reinharrl,  to  preach  tlie  Gospel  and  expound  Lutheran  doctrines. 
As,  however,  the  nev;  preaclier  could  not  speak  Danish,  lii^  seriudus 
had  to  be  traii-],'iti-(l   frdm  ilu'  Ccrnian  before  tliev  could  be  undiT- 


DENMARK     IN     ECLIPSE  191 

1520-1523 

stood.  The  effect  was  not  happy;  the  preacher's  gestures,  taken 
in  conjunction  with  what  sounded  to  his  hearers  hke  nonsensical 
jargon,  were  grotesque  and  ridiculous.  Indeed,  the  canons  of  a 
certain  chapter  caricatured  the  performance  by  dressing  up  a  chikl 
and  setting  him  to  imitate  the  Lutheran  theologian.  King  Chris- 
tian wrote  again  to  his  uncle,  begging  for  another  preacher,  and 
asking  whether  Luther  himself  would  not  come  to  Denmark  and 
settle  a  new  Reformed  Church  for  him.  But  the  great  Reformer 
had  other  things  to  do,  though  the  famous  Carlstadt  visited  Copen- 
hagen for  a  short  period. 

But  at  this  moment  Christian's  interest  in  the  new  faith  seemed 
to  lag,  for  he  had  learned  that  a  Papal  nuncio  was  coming  to  in- 
quire into  the  justice  of  the  sentences  upon  which  certain  Swedish 
nobles  had  been  put  to  death  at  Stockholm,  He  even  recoiled  to 
the  extent  of  writing  to  the  Pope  to  promise  that  he  would  punish 
all  heretics  infesting  his  kingdom.  Lideed  he  seemed  ready  to 
pledge  himself  to  almost  any  measure,  if  thereby  he  might  ward  off 
the  anger  of  Rome,  and  in  this  object  he  succeeded.  Yet  the  tide 
of  Lutheranism  continued  to  rise,  nor  did  Christian  make  any 
genuine  effort  to  stem  it  except  to  frame  an  ambitious  program 
of  clerical  reform :  clerical  non-residence  was  to  be  prohibited,  mon- 
asteries to  be  purged,  the  holding  of  private  property  by  unmarried 
clerks  to  be  forbidden,  a  modest  carriage  to  be  enjoined  upon 
churchmen ;  but  most  important  of  all,  appeals  to  the  Pope  were  to 
be  abolished.  The  scheme  had  not  yet  been  embodied  in  law  when 
Christian  was  deposed. 

The  nobility  reposed  no  confidence  in  Christian  IL,  who  in- 
variably took  his  advisers  from  the  humbler  ranks  of  society.  Espe- 
cially did  they  resent  the  influence  of  Sigbrit,  the  mother  of  the 
king's  beautiful  mistress,  Dyveke.  They  rightly  felt  that  as  long 
as  she  and  her  kindred,  with  their  Dutch  notions  of  freedom  and 
equal  rights  for  all  classes,  maintained  their  ascendency  over 
the  king,  the  special  privileges  of  the  nobility  were  in  constant 
jeopardy. 

One  day  in  April,  of  the  year  1523,  Christian  found,  in  a  glove 
which  he  was  about  to  draw  on,  a  crumpled  paper,  in  which  his 
nobles  declared  their  purpose  to  call  in  his  uncle,  Duke  Frederick 
of  Holstein,  to  be  king.  Christian's  courage  failed  him  at  the  very 
moment  when  he  stood  in  greatest  need  of  energetic  and  audacious 
action,   and,  although   the  city  of  ( "oijcnliagen,   together  with   the 


!  9^^  S  C  A  N  D  1  N  A  V  1  A 

1523-1532 

peasants  and  burghers  in  all  parts  of  Denmark  and  even  of  Xor- 
\\a^^  were  in  his  favor,  he  lied  in  precipitation,  settiny^  sail  with  his 
familv  and  all  h.is  bel(ini;;in,q-  f  tr  Holland,  where  lie  remained  for 
-(_)me  years  cUid  v.'here  three  years  later  his  queen  died  amoni; 
her  own  i)e''j)le.  Christian  lost  his  throne  for  want  ''of  a  petty 
a;id  momeniai'y  energy.''  Had  he  but  remained  rurujng  his 
.subjects  it  is  scarcely  doubtful  that  he  might  ha\-e  put  down  the 
rebellion.  Un'  even  among-  the  Danish  nobles  he  IkkI  dcvoied 
fi-iend-^,  and  for  iuan_y  Axars  his  able  commanders.  Tlenrik  (Ijo, 
S'"'rcn  Xorby.  and  others  made  a  bra\'e  .'Uid  capable  stand  for  him. 
in  Xorway.  too.  where  Christian  liinT-elf  landed,  in  1531,  with  an 
arm_\-  of  Dutch  and  Cerman.  mercenaries,  he  was  hailed  vrith  joy. 
.\t  th:'t  ver}'  moment,  however,  hi-^  uncle^  Frederick,  made  a  treat}' 
\\  ith  Sv/eden  .and  Liibeck,  both  of  wliich  powers  dreaded  Christian's 
rctmai  t')  Denmark.  By  their  joint  forces  the  unhai^py  king's  troop> 
V,  er':  defeated,  and  at  last,  in  1532.  on  a  promise  of  safety,  lie  g'avc 
himself  up  to  h.is  uncle's  commander.  Knud  Gylclensjerne.  who. 
h(!we\"er.  in-tead  of  setting'  him  at  li!)ertA'.  as  he  had  ])roniised. 
carried  hiiu  to  the  ca.stle  of  Sonderborg"  (n\  th.e  Tsl'i^ul  Al-.  and  liad 
liini  ci'U'lnod  in  a  dark  dungeon  beneath,  the  tov;er.  In  th.i-  wretched 
])'•]-' /ii,  to  which  hghit  and  air  could  ])enctra.te  (^nly  through  a  small 
grated  Vvindiow,  that  served  at  the  s.ame  time  for  the  pass;ig'e  of  the 
>La;uy  fo(jd  gi\-en  to  him.  Christian  ST)ent  se\"entecn  A'ea.rs  of  his 
hi'"e.  with  a  h.'df-witted  Xorv/egian  dwarf  for  his  sole  comi)anion. 
'  )n  i;:e  death,  of  h'rederick  f.  his  son,  Christian  HI..  sho,wed  a 
w  i-li  to  relea-c  th.e  un]ia])py  capti\'e,  on  condition  of  his  ])iedging' 
iiim-elf  to  rciiie  tf)  Cermany.  But  the  Danish  nobles  were  still 
lo')  imich  in  dre;id  of  Christian  H.  to  suffer  him  to  be  set  at  libcrt}'. 
liicieupon  the  com])a-sionate  king'  h.ad  hi^  my.al  ])risotier  remo\-ed 
;o  !\al]uiidbr»rg'  caslle,  where  he  \\,as  permitted  to  pass  tlie  last 
'<.■]]  yeai'-  <if  hi-,  life  in  comp.ar.ative  comfort,  and  where  he  died 
Ml  1 -5<».  witliln  ,1  few  months  of  his  cousin  and  name.-ake.  Chri.-- 
I'y.'.n  \\\. 

!•  redci';'- !.'-  -iliiation  was  not  an  easy  one.  !n  i,'-'')  Chn->ti;Mi 
Ik  '■■'!  i)ic  >!ii(,-  i'-ini:ij!\  ret:' incik'd  with  Rome,  and  wa-^  rei-Mgni/cd 
''}'  b"t!i  \'i]:<-  :  -.xl  cii'iKM'!  •!■  ;i^  the  riglitfnl  <o\ere;gn  of  j)e!iin:irl^ 
■■-•'"1  ^ 'l.rio ::;:'-.  MMpi-i^i  .n-nciit,  three  }-ear<  afiei'ward.  (hd  iK-f 
pl,-'cc  [■'■(•lie;:;!:-  r;-,>.,vn  h('\(,nd  ijcrik  IX'erything  eni])ha-i/('d  his 
di-penilciicr  ;  n  .11  ']]'•  !]■  ])-]\'.y.  ilie  iirdates.  a.nd  Xorn'nw  To  ilie-^''. 
r'ifM,   re;-] -t;nit    '■' >•  !C(-.~i.  ^n   lirul   |,i   kc  made.      Xorwa\-   \\a-   made   a 


DENMARK     IN      E  (^  L  I  P  S  E  1 93 

1[;20-1532 

free  elective  inonarchy.  The  Reformed  preachers  were  expelled 
from  the  towns,  and  were  forbidden  to  preach  the  doctrines  of 
Luther,  or  e\cn  to  read  the  Bible  to  the  people.  The  appointment 
of  any  but  bishops  of  noble  birth  was  prohibited.  Christian  TI.'s 
poor-schools  Mere  closed:  newly  printed  books  of  the  vcrnacnlar 
were  burned:  the  old  restrictions  of  serfdom  were  reimp(~»scd.  as 
extensively  as  possible.  It  was  proclaimed  abroad  by  the  nobility 
with  the  royal  sanction  "  to  be  contrary  to  mtirahiv  ''  to  attempt  to 
elevate  those  "  wliom  God  meant  to  be  slaves." 

The  least  successful  item  of  Frederick's  policv  of  reaction  was 
his  attempt  at  first  to  check  the  Reformation.  Evidences  of  the 
new  enthusiasm  abounded  everywhere.  TTermann  Tast.  a  leanved 
priest  of  Husum  in  Jutland,  stood  forth  in  the  year  1520  in  the 
market  place  of  that  town  and  expounde'l  many  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture to  the  people  in  accordance  with  tlie  new  teachinp;  of  the  Ger- 
man Reformers.  A  few  years  later  another  prie:it.  Hans  Tanscn. 
aptly  called  the  "  Danish  Lutlier,"  preached  at  \h'borg-  with  such 
force  against  tlie  Church  of  Rome  tliat  the  Danish  clergy  iook- 
alarm,  and  tried  by  all  mean^  in  their  ])Ower  to  silence  this  learned 
and  dangerous  man,  but  each  time  that  he  wns  in.iprisoncd  In-  Ins 
bishop  the  people  flew  to  arms  and  clamored  till  they  secured  liis 
freedom.  .\t  "Alalmo,  Klaus  Alortcn^en,  a  cooper,  jjreaclied  in  tlie 
o|)cn  air  until  the  people  phiced  one  o^  the  clinrches  at  ]n"s  rlispo-vJ. 
Ai  lengtli,  ill  I53f\  the  b;n-ghcrs  in  Ctipenhagen  and  the  otlier 
large  Danish  to\vns  began  in  their  tn.rn  seriously  to  ill-treai:  tb.e 
monks  and  to  destroy  tlie  images  and  ./rnaments  of  tlie  churchc-:. 
until  soldiers  were  sent  to  repress  tlic  riots.  Tn  the  meantime,  ii- 
1524,  a  translation  of  the  Xew  TpsL;Mncnl  ;nio  Danish  liad  been 
published  at  .\nt.verp  by  I  bans  Mil^kelsen,  a  ]e:n-ne(l  man  who  liad 
left  liis  all  to  follow  C'u'istian  11.,  and  in  1529  a  second  and  bctier 
version  was  given  to  the  Danes  l)y  tlieir  countryman.  Jvristen  Peder- 
sen,  the  "  Father  of  DanisJi  Literature.""  wh,o  also  transla.ted  I'ic 
l-'salms  into  lOrmish.  Li  x'.iin  did  tlie  Koman  clergy  call  s\-n(jds  10 
decide  ^\■hat  was  to  be  done  10  e\t;i"|):i!c  IJ-.e-c  dorlriiies.  In  y.i'm, 
too,  flid  tliev  appeal  \(i  I'rcderirlc.  who  was  now  in\'o1\'ed  in  a  ciuiir- 
rel  with  ]\>])Q  Cleiuent  \'iL  ai)our  tlie  tilling  of  llie  arcliln'-dioprie  of 
Lund.  At  l;is1.  in  Angn-t,  J 521'),  the  king  tool^  matters  into  his 
own  hands  vnf]  conHrmed  the  el:::Iec  wliich  llie  cluaptrr  of  Lnnd  Ii.'.d 
made,  in  accni-dan.ce  with  a  I'ap:'.!  bull  of  17,50).  !  lencci.  Tih.  no 
nan,i-h  bi-hops  souglit  I\ip;d  >'.  .;ilirnia1  i<  )ii.    .\   \(ar  l.iliT.  in  an.wv-r 


194  SCANDINAVIA 

1532-1536 

to  the  clergy's  protest  against  the  impunity  of  Lutheran  preachers. 
Frederick  declared  that  faith  is  free  and  that  each  man  must  follow 
liis  conscience.  The  Danish  church  was  free  of  Rome;  that  it 
would  soon  be  Lutheran,  was  certain. 

In  1533  Frederick  L  died,  and  for  three  years  the  "Count's 
Feud.*"  or  war  waged  by  Count  Christopher  of  Oldenburg  in  the 
interest  of  the  captive  Christian  TL,  distracted  Denmark.  Christo- 
pher found  allies  in  the  burghers  of  Copenhagen,  ]Malmo,  and 
Liibeck.  At  the  same  time  the  nobility  and  clergy  were  divided  on 
tiie  question  of  the  succession.  The  former  championed  the  cause 
of  Christian  TIL,  Frederick's  eldest  son,  and  Duke  of  Slesvig- 
ITolstein;  the  latter  desired  to  see  the  younger  prince,  Hans,  on 
the  throne,  since,  being  a  mere  boy,  he  might  yet  be  won  over  to 
the  ancient  faith,  while  Christian  had  already  shown  himself  by 
liis  policy  in  Slesvig-Holstein  to  be  a  vigorous  and  enthusiastic 
Lutheran.  The  war  was  determined  by  Gustaf  Vasa's  alliance 
with  the  Danish  estates..  While  Gustaf  was  whipping  the  Lii- 
i)eckers.  Prince  Christian's  commander,  Johan  Rantzau.  was  dis- 
])osing  of  Count  Christopher.  August  6,  1536,  Christian  TTT.,  hav- 
ing been  already  proclaimed  in  the  islands,  entered  Copenhagen 
in  triumph. 

The  clergy  were  not  mistaken  in  foreboding  that  with  Chris- 
tian TTL's  accession  their  day  had  come.  The  new  monarch's  f^■^t 
act  was  to  summon  tlie  council  of  state,  and  to  engage  the  members 
of  that  body  to  support  him  in  the  execution  of  the  plans  which  he 
laid  before  them  for  extinguishing  the  Roman  Church  in  Denmark. 
On  one  and  the  same  dav  all  bishops  were  placed  under  arrest,  and 
those  who  refused  to  pledge  tlicmselves  not  to  oppose  the  king's 
])rogramine  were  put  in  confmement.  Li  the  autumn  of  1536  a  Great 
Tiling,  or  general  diet,  called  at  Copenhagen  pr<')claimed  the  Luth- 
eran failli  to  be  the  established  belief  of  Denmark.  The  Roman 
Catholic  bi.-!u.j)s  were  deprived  of  their  rank,  titles,  and  share  in 
the  gfjvcrnmcnt.  All  the  possessions  of  the  church  were  forfeited 
t')  i1h'  crown.  I'hc  Lutheran  clergy,  who  were  placed  at  the  head 
of  tlic-  iK'w  (■linrrh,  were  known  at  first  as  "overseers."  Onl\' 
afterwaril  ''i(l  tlicy  regain  the  title  of  "bishop."  Fvery  parish  was 
allowed  I0  c'lioo-e  iis  own  ])astor,  or  vicar;  the  vicars  were  left  to 
choose  tlicw  ])i-o\-o^-t;  and  tlie  ])rovosts  in  their  turn  were  free  to 
m.alcc  r!;r,i\>.  ,,)  tlK-ir  own  o\-er<eer.  Tlie  king,  however,  was  ntjt 
tlie   only   one   \i)   prollt    by   the   revolution.      'I'jic    nobles   gained    a 


DENMARK     IN     ECLIPSE  195 

1536-1559 

great  increase  of  wealth  and  influence  in  the  land,  for  on  one 
pretense  or  other  they  obtained  a  large  number  of  the  estates  which 
had  been  held  by  the  church,  while  at  the  same  time  they  repressed 
the  clergy  and  by  degrees  came  to  treat  them  as  persons  much 
inferior  to  themselves  in  rank.  Christian's  attempts  to  have  the 
wealth  of  the  Roman  Church  used  to  endow  schools  for  the  clergy 
and  poorer  laity  counted  for  little.  A  few  Latin  schools,  however, 
were  opened  for  poor  scholars,  and  the  University  of  Copenhagen 
now  first  acquired  honor  and  credit  on  account  of  the  learning  of 
its  teachers. 

The  Danish  Reformation  destroyed  the  clerical  order,  but  it 
did  not  diminish  the  ascendency  of  the  nobles.  Neither  did  it 
bring  religious  toleration.  Very  soon  the  Lutherans  were  proving 
themselves  to  be  quite  as  harsh  to  all  who  differed  from  them  in 
faith  as  the  Catholics  had  been.  Whenever  a  Calvinist  or  other 
Reformed  teacher,  who  did  not  belong  to  the  church  of  Luther, 
came  to  Denmark  and  began  to  preach,  he  was  harried  out  of  the 
land  without  mercy,  as  if  he  were  a  malefactor,  instead  of  a  minister 
of  Christ. 

When  Christian  IIL  died,  on  New  Year's  Day,  1559.  Denmark 
was  in  a  more  settled  state  as  to  religious,  foreign,  and  home  affairs 
of  the  nation  than  it  had  been  for  many  years.  In  every  parish 
in  the  country  the  doctrines  of  Luther  were  preached  from  the  pul- 
pits, and  all  men  and  women,  from  the  highest  to  the  I(jwcst,  were 
permitted  to  read  their  Bibles  in  their  own  tongue.  Tlie  convents 
and  monasteries  were  indeed  still  held  by  the  nuns  and  monks, 
who  had  not  been  willing  to  leave  them,  for  King  Christian  had 
shown  a  tender  regard  to  the  feelings  of  those  who  desired  to  end 
their  days  within  the  walls  of  tlie  cloisters,  in  which  they  had  taken 
their  vows,  before  the  establishment  of  the  Lutheran  religion.  But 
by  degrees  one  convent  after  the  other  was  closed,  and  Denmark, 
like  Sweden  and  Norway,  became  tlioroughly  i'rotestantized. 

Great  progress  had  been  made  in  learning  during  Christian's 
reign.  The  laws  had  been  revised  witli  much  care,  a  common 
system  of  weights  and  measures  had  been  brought  into  use  in  X'or- 
way  and  Denmark,  the  same  f(jrm  of  money  had  been  made  legal 
for  both  countries,  and  a  more  ecjuitable  standard  had  been  hxed 
upon  for  the  amount  of  silver  to  be  put  into  the  coinage.  'I'rade 
had  begun  to  flourish,  and  tlie  Danes  now  went  in  their  own  sin'ps 
to  buv  the  wnres  in  forciq'n  norts.  wliich  \'or  a  long  tinu-  lirnl  been 


J 96  sr.\  N  I)  I  N  A  ^  1  A 

1559-1560 

Ijrcnglit  to  tliem  by  the  German  traders  of  Hamburg  and  Liibeck. 
'J'he  Reformation  was  a  more  popular  movement  in  Denmark  than 
in  Sweden.  In  Norway,  where  it  was  simply  a  part  of  the  policy 
by  which  tlie  control  of  an  alien  monarchy  was  fastened  upon  the 
country,  it  was  generally  opposed  by  the  people.  However,  with 
the  defeat  of  Christian  H.'s  cause  in  1532  and  the  death  of  the  Nor- 
wegian T)rin"'.ate,  Olaf  Engelbrechtsson.  Archbishop  of  Drontheim. 
in  1 53''^,  the  policy  of  I'rederick  I.  of  Denmark  and  Christian  HI. 
triumphedi.  The  kingdom  of  Norway  was  declared  "  no  longer  a 
separate  kingdom,  but  a  dependency  of  "Denmark."  Of  course, 
iiie  Norwegian  cliurch  was  remodeled  after  the  Danish  fashion, 
but  tlie  blood  of  tlie  peasantry  was  freely  spilled  in  the  consumma- 
ti'  'U  of  tlie  work. 

Ih-ederick'  H..  Christian  Ill.'s  son  and  successor,  began  liis 
reign  b}'  an  incursi'jn  into  the  lands  of  the  Dilmarshers.  prirtK' 
because  i:ic>e  f'jlk  were  refusing,  as  usual,  lo  pa.y  certain  taxc> 
alleged  to  Ijc  due  ihe  Holstein  princes,  and  partly  becrui>e  he  wa> 
a.nxious  lo  wijie  out  the  disgrace  which  the  Danes  h;id  suffered 
under  his  great-uncle.  King  Hans,  and  his  grandfather,  k'rederick 
1..  when,  they  liaal  attacked  tlie  Marshmen  in  the  year  j  500. 

The  ,n:iui;di  and  Holstein  armie.^.  tunounling  to  -'o.r)00  men, 
were  under  tlie  command  of  the  (jld  Count  Johan  Ka.ntxau.  By  h\> 
>l:']U  and  ;icti\it}".  notw  ithstauding  the  desperrUc  manner  in  which 
tlic  }^lar-hmcn  and  e\cn  their  \vi\-es  and  daughters  resisted  the  ad- 
xan.cc  of  flic  in\ader^.  tbe  camjxaign  was  brouglit  to  a  close  in  le.-,> 
than  a  niomii  b\-  their  complete  sul)jecti()n.  i  buing  received  the 
l^'Hiagc  <■]  _;oH.)o  Ditmar.-hers  at  I  Icidc,  the  \oung  Danish  king  ic 
tni'iicd  in  IrinnirJi  to  (Copenhagen  in   i  3*'in. 

I  lis  ii'ifia!  -ncce-,-  made  I'h'cderi'-!:  conrideiu  in  the  strength 
'n  hi-  o\.  :i  p'.ver  -.'.wd  ])row-css.  Wh'thont  heed  to  the  con>e([uence.-. 
o'!- '■'■!'  "  ■.  he  ',■: 'Ui ;: :;K'd  to  bear  the  three  northern  crowns  ni  the 
nai''in,:i!  .-;;iii!!:M'd  <if  j)cnmau-l<.  As  we  hax'e  ah'cadv  seen,  llii-- 
;>"■<■(.■  ni  \  ;ii::-!(  M'y  lirMUght  him  into  contro\-er-\-  with  hhak  \l\h. 
v.\\'-.  \', :::;  rn]]:i]  ;;:-c-um])iio]i  ;ind  with  no  preten-e  nf  righl  whai 
CU-1-,  w,-!-  doii.M-  ])ix'riyely  t!ie  .^ame  thing.  1  low  'h.-'i-!  I'oir-  ihe 
^<-'':UMni,-'\  i::!i  Sew:!  ^"car-"  War  was  to  both,  partic-.  we  ha\-e  al- 
^"^■•■'dy  ni''n;i— led.  'Ihe  .Swedes,  ho\ve\-er.  sulTerefl  !e-->  than  the 
I 'ane-,  .e  i"  '  in -' :' i  \  a-a.  had  left  his  kn'ngd(.im  in  so  pro^-perons  a  state 
!h:!t  the\-  <l'ri  n,,',  m;.;!  :!;c  bmalen--  of  war  a--  nni'-Ii  a>  the  peoi^le  m|' 
I  '' nina!-|a    \ehe;c    ihe    King'-    |im\\(t    wa-    entir(>l\     eripplci    h\-    .ai 


D  l:  n  m  a  k  k    I  N    Kc  i,  j  i'  s  i:  i\y\ 

1560-1570 

avaricious  and  unpatriotic  nobility.  Xc\eri!iclcss.  the  peace  wliicli 
was  concluded  between  the  two  countries  at  Stctiin.  in  1570,  was  on 
the  whole  very  favorable  to  Denmark.  In  return  for  giving-  up  her 
pretensions  to  Sweden,  which  could  never  have  been  established, 
she  secured  her  own  rights  o\'er  Norway  and  recovered  Skaanin, 
Halland,  and  Bleking. 

The  remainder  of  LYederick's  reign  was  prosperous,  thanks 
to  his  able  minister.  I^eder  Oxe,  who  restored  <jrdcr  to  tlic  hnances. 
encouraged  learnii\g  and  trade,  did  vdiat  he  could  to  l)rc;ik  tlie 
monopolies  that  the  king-  at  the  outset  of  his  reign  had  granted  to 
the  noi)ility.  and  impro\T(l  the  condition  of  tlie  pcasantr\'.  I'o 
k'rederick  his  countrymen  are  indebted  iVir  liic  iutroduciion  of 
many  fruits,  vegetables,  and  flowers,  hitherto  iinlsnown  in  J3enniark, 
and  also  for  tlie  copious  stocking  of  n.ianv  lakes  and  streams  witli 
carp  and  other  tish.  The  king's  religious  intolerance,  alone,  stood 
in  the  wa}'  of  the  benc\-tMcrit  i)oMc\'  w^iicii  hi-  lO'cat  minister  out- 
lined for  him.  and  which  I'^-ederick  was  ;^-ciicr:i'i!  s  content  to  follow. 
kl^pecially  wp.s  he  opposed  to  the  doctrines  of  (\-Jvin,  whose  ad- 
herents were  persecuted  with  the  greatest  ,-e\erii\-,  tlirougli  the 
influence  (jf  the  Lutheran  di\'ine.  Jricob  .'', ii(ire;i,e.  jjrofes-or  rr 
Tubingen,  and  a  ];rotege  of  Frederick's  b:-o'l)ei--ind:iw.  the  :'".!cc:Lor 
August  of  Saxony.  .\t  .\nd;x"ae"s  sugg'e::-iioii  twenty -lixc  artjc'cs 
of  belief  Avere  drawn  up,  to  which  ('\  cryoi:c  \' ho  wished  io  reside 
in  Danish  territory  w;is  com}.)cllcd  \<:>  L.d\c  his  :'d'K::do|].  I '<M;;ccntion 
prevailed  in  evcr\-  pai1  of  the  Danish  rcoliu.  f;dii!ig  wiih  .-dmo-l 
equal  se\'cril\"  on  cdcrgv  and  laily.  Among  liu:  Jonncr,  ilu:  mi.)s!. 
distinguished  xdclim  of  the  idngA  bigotry  wn-  Xi<'N  i  h.niiiiiiigcii, 
the  friend  and  i)Ui)il  of  Alelanchlhon,  who.  hcM  die  cliair  o'l  theoloo'^ 
in  tlie  L'niversity  of  Coj)enhagen,  b;a  w  a--  dc;)ri\-ed  ol  his  oKica 
and  interdicted  from  teaching,  on  a.cco'.;-;  ol  a  bias  tor  the  ( ieiie 
van's  doctrines.  'idie  ])astor.  ?\iels  Ai  ddNi'isen,  \\a.>  exeii  moia- 
se\'erely  treated,  Ijeing  oi"deredl  to  ica\r  \]]c  kaigdom  on  ;u-c-ount  oi 
h.aviiig  ]jreached  wh:U  was  conflcnned  a.-  "  ilie  damnabk'  !ua'e.-_\ 
that  by  Clod's  grace  even  healhc'i.-^  might  \)v  sa\od."  XnotluT  pa,- 
tor.  !\-ar  Barthelsen.  deemed  Innr^df  ioa-tunale  in  ha\  in;^  !hc  sen 
tence  (.)f  death,  which  had  [)ee!i  p<!.-sed  upiai  itim,  cominiacd  io  a 
long  impriscaiment,  on  accoiiut  ol  hi.-  iia,\in.4-  omati,d,  io  read  I'lo 
words  (jf  the  renuncian'on  of  the  de\il,  which  t<,»rmed  ]>arl  oi  lae 
ba])ti-ma!  '-erx  ice. 

ill   ijn-   -a.-ile  m)'  iImh"^   h    v\ciild    -ccni   ihrrc  Ci^dd   -<-;iivci;    li.r,  c 


198  SCANDINAVIA 

1570-1588 

been  any  great  progress  in  learning,  which  was,  moreover,  much 
fettered  by  severe  laws  against  liberty  of  the  press.  Nevertheless, 
during  Frederick's  reign,  numerous  public  institutions  were  estab- 
lished in  various  quarters  of  the  kingdom,  the  schools  of  Soro  and 
Skovskl(jster  were  opened,  and  learned  men  were  patronized,  pro- 
vided they  were  orthodox  Lutherans.  One  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  these  was  Anders  Sorensen  Vedel,  to  whom  Frederick 
committed  the  labor  of  composing  a  new  history  of  Denmark. 
Though  Vedel  never  completed  his  task,  in  setting  about  it  he 
translated  the  Latin  history  of  Denmark  of  Saxo  Grammaticus, 
and  collected  all  the  ancient  ballads  and  songs  which,  under  the 
name  of  kaempeviser,  were  still  current  in  Denmark.  To  this 
period,  also,  belongs  Tycho  Brahe,  the  great  astronomer,  w-ho  had 
early  in  life  secured  the  respect  and  admiration  of  the  learned  men 
of  his  times  by  his  writings  on  the  "  New  Star,"  ^  which  had  sud- 
denly appeared  in  the  heavens  in  1572,  and  then,  after  continuing 
visible  for  eighteen  months,  had  disappeared.  Frederick  II.  always 
exhibited  great  interest  in  Tycho's  researches  and  to  enable  him  to 
pursue  his  obsen'ations  unmolested,  bestowed  upon  him  the  little 
Island  (jf  Hven,  near  Coi)enhagen.  Flere  Tycho  built  a  great 
obser\-atory,  known  as  Uranienborg,  remarkable  in  those  times  for 
the  number  of  ingenious  instruments  which  it  contained,  many  of 
Tycho's  own  contrivance,  and  for  the  subterranean  observatory  at- 
tached to  it.  in  which,  through  a  narrow  slit  far  above  the  obser\-er's 
head,  the  stars  might  be  seen  in  broad  daylight.  When  King 
Frederick  died,  Tycho  Brahe's  relations,  who  belonged  to  the  oldest 
nobility  and  had  long  resented  his  devotion  to  scientific  research 
as  a  reproach  to  their  rank,  used  all  their  inHuencc  with  the  regents 
to  bring-  him  under  suspicion  of  treason  and  heresy;  and,  at  length, 
to  escape  im[)ris()nment  as  a  traitor  or  a  madman,  he  was  forced 
into  voluntary  exile.  At  the  earnest  inxitation  of  the  I'^.mi)eror 
Rudolph  II.  (if  (Jcrmany,  he  settled  in  159^  at  Prague,  where  he 
(lied,  in  1^)01,  while  engaged  \\ith  his  friend  Kepler  in  composing 
from  his  numerous  cbscrvations  at  Uranienborg  those  astronomical 
tables  which  are  to-day  known  as  the  kudol])hine.  The  name  of 
In'cIio  Hralie  is  to  be  linked  with  th(;se  of  Co])ernicu.s.  Kcj)ler,  and 
.\ewt(jn  in  any  account  of  the  rise  of  modern  astronomy  from 
the  >y-,tcin^  of   Piolcmy  and  Ilipparchus. 

'"/'(•    .\.>:'ii   S'rUii."   p',ilili-lu-'l    in    1572    iii    a    separate    paper.    l)Ut    afterward 


DENMARK     IN     ECLIPSE  199 

1588-1606 

When  Frederick  II.-  died,  in  the  year  15SS,  liis  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Christian  IV.,  was  but  eleven  years  of  age.  According  to 
the  will  of  the  late  king,  his  queen,  Sophia  of  ^Mecklenburg,  was  to 
act  as  regent  for  her  son  till  the  latter  attained  the  age  of  eighteen, 
but  the  council  of  state  refused  to  confirm  the  regency  and  ap- 
pointed four  members  of  their  own  body  to  conduct  the  affairs  of 
the  government,  and  to  have  charge  of  the  person  of  the  young 
king.  They  also  decreed  that  Christian's  minority  should  continue 
till  his  twentieth  year,  and  drew  up  a  code  to  regulate  the  inter- 
course of  the  young  king  with  his  self-constituted  guardians. 

These,  however,  turned  out  to  be  able  and  patriotic  men,  under 
whose  conscientious  direction  Christian  became  an  accomplished 
prince.  Thus,  he  early  displayed  great  talent  for  mathematics  and 
mechanics,  and,  while  care  was  taken  by  the  chancellor,  Xiels  Kass, 
to  provide  him  with  competent  teachers  in  these  and  allied  branches 
of  learning,  his  love  for  the  sea  was  developed  by  another  of  his 
guardians,  Chief  Admiral  Peder  Munk.  who  caused  a  miniature 
frigate  to  be  built  expressly  for  his  ward,  upon  the  lake  adjoining 
the  royal  palace  of  Skanderborg,  and  where  expert  sailors  taught 
Christian  how  to  manage  his  toy  man-of-war,  and  shipbuilders 
instructed  him  in  all  the  details  of  their  craft. 

Christian  paid  a  visit  to  England  in  1606  to  his  sister  Anne, 
who  had  married  James  I.,  and  we  are  told  that  he  took  his  young 
nephews,  the  princes  Henry,  Charles,  and  James,  for  a  cruise  with 
him  in  the  Channel,  on  board  the  TrcfoldigJicd,  or  Trinity,  for 
which  he  had  himself  constructed  the  model.  There  seems  to  have 
been  a  great  deal  of  feasting  and  merry-making  during  this 
visit,  and  James  I.'s  courtiers  are  said  to  have  expressed  their 
astonishment  at  the  cjuantity  of  beer  and  wine  that  the  royal 
guest  had  been  able  to  imbi])e.  They  were,  however,  even  more 
astonished  at  the  accomplishments  of  this  northern  monarch,  who 
spoke  many  languages  with  equal  facility,  could  fence  and  fight, 
ride  and  drive,  and  swim  with  the  best  of  them,  and  who 
seemed  to  know  something  oi  every  subject,  asked  questions 
about  everything  he  saw,  was  well  ac(|uainlc(l  with  the  science 
of  his  times,  and  was  com])ctent  to  ])lan  a  shij),  a  churcli,  or 
a  palace.     Christian  very  ])ossibly  inherited  some  of  his  \'ersatiliiy 

-The  memory  of  Frederick  1 1,  of  Denmark  and  liis  liighly  Kin^'d  Queen 
Sophia  possesses  a  special  ir.tert'st  to  ]'>.i<;Iishmen,  since  as  the  parents  of  Anne, 
wife  of  James  I.  of  JCnj^hmd  and  VI.  of  Scotland,  they  rank  among  tlie  direct 
ancestors  of  Edward  VJl. 


.'.'(Ml  S  (    A  \  1)  1  .\   A  \'  I  A 

1005-1623 

.•Mid  i-\c  of  knowledo-e  fr' on  liis  niLitlicr,  Sophia  of  Meclxlcn- 
l)iirL;'.  \\hn  was  ?aiil  to  1ia\-c  bcon  ilie  mo-t  Icirned  f|iicen  (<i  lier  a^e, 
and  ^^llo,  wlicii  the  n()i)lcs  ami  council  of  state  \vonl(l  not  let  lier 
act  as  rco-ei'L  for  licr  son.  reiirccl  witb.oiit  reluctance  to  a  riuiet  pla.ce 
in  tlie  cnua.iry.  ^vl^ere  sl^e  s]!ent  licr  time  in  tlie  ^ludy  of  chemistry. 
a-;t!'oni  ony.  and  I'dier  M''cnce-. 

Chn^iian's  ineriis  as  a  ruler  were  indeed  g'rcat.  To  him  Den- 
mark I -wed  tlic  e-:ald;sriment  of  immerons  companies  for  trading-  to 
Iceland,  'ivce.darid.  An^crica.  and  the  T^ast  Indies;  the  fij^eninL:'  of 
the  fir.-t  line  'if  [;■  -iruads  from  Cnpenhia^'en  tf)  the  warions  ^-caport^; 
the  erect:- >n  of  numcr.ni-^  l)!"i(l!:^-e^,  fMrtit^cations.  and  other  mean< 
of  ri.'dional  comm.u.nication,  rnid  defen.<e:  the  enli-tmera  oi  the  fir^i 
i)ani-h  standiuL:'  arm^;;  the  careful  oi-i^anizaiiim  of  the  tleet  and 
na\-y.  and  ilie  foundati-.n  ('if  <e\"eral  n)'htar\'  and  na\'al  collec^es. 
1  Fe  encoua'a'-^-ed  h'in'c  trade  h\-  hrinj^'inq-  -l<dled,  arlii'icers  from 
ahronr]  [,,  instruct  the  Danish  w  >  irhmen  in  theii"  several  craft<.  aided 
ma-tcr  tradesmen  in  estal)li>hinL;  nianufactoric-  rmd  worl<^hop<,  and 
em];-'  yri]  men  -lulled  in  sciciK-e  to  sui^crinteivl  !ho  roA'al  -ih;er  and 
c^'pocr  mine>  'a  f^("u"\\"a\'.  rmd  to  aih,u>^e  die  in-p^-'t' "'■;  -u  th^'  crown 
h,n(N,  wi;ods,  ao  '  lake;-.  Ifis  lo\-c  of  dis])la\-  and  ta:~te  i^^r  building- 
tended  Lfreruiy  n>  the  unorov-ement  rnal  emhelHdun^iit  of  hi-  c;ipit;d. 
rmd  the  -■jjlendid  ca-:ko  (,f  k'redrirl-:!^  irj^  and  Ih -rMMii^  iri^  near 
C'pCiihai^un,  to;;c/du'!-  wi'h  tla-  i\ouud  d'M\vcr,  ihc  Ihya!  if uciiaia;^ 
and  rrie  ra-  '  w  o  churches  whicli  ha\-e  e-caped  die  munerriu-  i^reat 
['wr^  and  hmnhardment--  of  the  iutcrx'enin;?^-  ceuiurie^,  >till  aUe-^l 
da-  aid-!--  da"  ,md  creain-^-  ;L^-eni:i-  (,f  dd-  kinc^-,  who  in  mo-i 
>.■'<■■(■■■    Iduv^lf    inrnishcd    die    models,    and    jdnns    from    lii:'.    own 

Cf!  r'.-'h '■  cnua-e-,  with  paTar  -ap'acitv  uii-n  the  uuk  of  re- 
\  i^:;^a'  thr  'a',''-  ot  i  a  nriiarh  raal  ah  ir\\ai v.  and  <  a  m:d<in'^  the  altera- 
"ou-  'u  I'vuu  dfcur;  aded  h\'  die  char:</ed  (■•'ndid-u  ■  '  -^TU'ly;  aad 
here,  ::  -in  'he  1  ir-ou:-o~  w  hicii  he  U 'ok  ;  ^ ;  w'- jt-  .  w;  the  iuL;''a'r  scho"'-, 
l;e  (-.a:-":  :i  -f'oj.j  '"-liiiaL;  toward  nrmcijjle-  o'  ,-in'ihiy.  d  he 
-viWi-;  '  o-;dwv^-  <  i  !'•-  reform-  ',N-a<  t-  -uhi'-'i  ^■'\'  i^  '■!;■-,  ui  die 
■'■     '' •     '    ■■  ua-:  :  .    die  '/la-w-  hdow    iImu.  waw.--  :'.''  eawiwiou 

ja  .:,..  ,■,;.■;:.-;  d  '■  '  r.wr  oi'dcr- .  (  'lu-'U  i:ui  .doi  A'-  o\-'-d  !ain-cl  f 
d'-  'V'  f      .a;     .    ,w.    v-,,iii;.=-,.-    M,.,iij  r-   of   d^f    'i.  '/diw   u-au':i 

iM'O.a  •    :■••(■    ,o    '•  .■]^;:[' :■'     '      I  a_'^:;  Ml  :.r;id:'!;iy  a:   :^.  ^i-  i.  iiiUo" 

<  oj);  ,,;i:.-  1 1 ,,    ._.    '. ,    .  ■      '•■  •   nUi.ii  lo  '■'  :c  \oudi--  oi  liiw  d>    .■'iai:'  ii 


D  E  X  M  A  R  K     I  N     E  ("  L  11'  S  J-:  f>01 

1623-1643 

the  instruction  suited  to  their  rank  before  thev  left  their  own  eouu- 
try  to  travel  abruad  for  amusement.  His  cou>ta;":t  cii'ierivor.  li.ow-- 
ever,  to  lessen  the  power  of  tlie  noljies  over  tiieir  -erfs.  audi  cheek 
their  encroachments  on  the  ri.q-Jits  <^{  ilie  crown,  made  I'im  un!)0])u- 
lar  with  the  higher  classes,  vhn  liiwrirled  :■,!>  proiect^  at  everv 
possible  turn,  and  took  vengeance  for  his  lio.-Lilin'  i^  iheir  im- 
muities  a.nd  ])rivileges  by  vvithholding  the  monc\-  >nn;)hcs  wlijcli 
he  required. 

E-pecially  was  this  true  in  die  TJiirty  Vr;ir<'  \\  ir,  ICarh-  in 
the  year  1625  the  Protestant  princes  ni  iM;ith  CJ<rin;iu\  appealed  lo 
Christian  for  help  again^-l  A\'alien>ie;ii  and  "lillv-,  who,  adcr  lad- 
ing" was-tc  every  Protestant  di-lrict  of  souihem  ( le^anj.nv.  had 
thrown,  their  arniics  into  Pomerania.  In  resjwnse  lo  the  appeal  of 
his  Protestand  brctlu'cn,  Cliristian  led  a  large  number  ol  truops  into 
German}',  and  for  three  years  perforn:ed  \'a'iant  -e'-\  ice  in  the 
cause  of  thiC  Protestant  princes  in  Pomerania.  die  ?\larkl:mds.  and 
larunswick,  but  wlu'le  he  was  fighting  abrc;!-;]  Ills  enemies  were 
earr}-ing  the  war  iuito  Ids  own  ccjup.tr\',  biio'ing  an.d  phandcrin.g 
wherever  they  appeared.  Duke  hd-edericiv  lid  of  liol-tein  and 
Slcr^vig  had  opened  those  provinces  to  Walleiistein,  and  in  denan.ce 
(jf  Cliristian,  whose  vassal  he  was,  had  surrendered  t^  the  imj)er!ai 
general  every  fortress  in  tlie  two  i)ro\inces.  At  la-t,  in  1629, 
Christian  decided  to  withdraw  frciin  the  ricnnan  war.  l.U-  the 
Treat}'  of  Liibeck  he  pledged  himself  ne\'er  au'ain  to  take  up  arms 
for  the  German  ]-h'(_)te?tant  princes  rigaiu«t  tiic  emj)eror.  \\]v>.  in 
return  for  thi<  pledge,  restored  to  Christian  die  lands  his  generrd:. 
had  -eized. 

The  Danish  mijiiarclds  wiLh'lr;;\\'?l  fro'in  the  Germa.n  \wir  wa-. 
in  part,  delerndned  by  the  dilapidated  cou'dd-n  oT  ]]]<.  cxvhe(iuer: 
but  in  part  it  ^\•as  induced  b}"  gr()wing  apprehension  id  Gn-^ta\'u< 
Adol]diu>"s  intentions  on  the  Continenl.  i'dtom  \f>2(}  U.  o'i.pv  dm 
date  of  Torsien-sotds  in\-a<ion  rA  Denniar!:.  Cdiri-dan  eiiga:;ed  in 
cca;^eless  C(jncociion  of  ])]--^i-  and  intrigue^  a-'ainsi  die  r'-na;;  Svn.'- 
ish  power,  ddie  terms  (iT  tiic  (dsasti'ou;-  "Id'cat}-  of  drdnnnb-o 
brought  all  thi-  -cl^eminv'  !'>  a  fuiile  clo:av  Wy  die  r-urreno-i'  o: 
Sfnnid  toll^,  -t'luiialed  in  ihat  ]):irt.  joo.noo  r\s  dojkirs  \v(  tl  I'-n 
annualb;  to  the  Dani-ii  w-d'C-incr.  Yd.  vdaai  die  old  king  in  id- 
perplc:-dt}'  tried  V)  :-ecnre  funds  ii}'  ronimutnig  Inn'  a  m-  ;:.■>-  pay- 
ment 0.  ':  o-r\dce  \\\{h  n:.  n  nnd  ^i-!'-^,;  .Pi-  fr.  .m  dio  iiMU'd'y.  ['■'•■■ 
council   of   nriic   ihrc!  { en- 'd    n^   n''---  o\-(t  'a-;   -011-    mi    die   -wi-v  -^  \i  ■[■. 


202  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  A'  I  A 

1643-1648 

and  elect  a  prince  of  the  Holstein-Gottorp  family  to  be  his 
successor."^ 

After  the  loss  of  his  first  queen,  Anna  Katherina  of  Branden- 
burg, in  1 612,  Christian  had  married  Kristine  ]Mnnk,  a  lady  of 
noble  but  not  royal  lineage,  to  whom,  being  unable  to  make  her 
queen,  he  gave  the  title  of  Countess  of  Slesvig-Holstein.  The  king 
lived  for  many  years  happily  with  this  lady,  but  later  became  dis- 
trustful of  her  and  caused  her  conduct  to  be  made  the  subject  of  a 
judicial  inquiry  before  his  council,  the  outcome  of  which  was  the 
lady's  banishment  to  Jutland.  The  highly  gifted  Eleanor  Kristine, 
who  married  a  Danish  nobleman,  Korfitz  Ulfeld,  and,  together 
with  her  ambitious  husband,  exerted  a  very  great  influence  over  the 
king  during  his  declining  years,  was  one  of  the  numerous  issue  of 
this  connection. 

Christian  IV.  died  in  1648.  With  the  Danish  people  his  mem- 
ory has  been  cherished  with  devoted  loyalty  from  one  generation  to 
another,  and  they  look  upon  him  as  the  greatest  king  since  the 
time  of  the  Valdemars,  ascribing  the  good  of  his  reign  to  himself 
and  the  evil  to  the  nobles,  by  whom  he  was  held  in  such  galling 
bondage. 

The  century  and  a  quarter  lying  between  the  revolution  of 
Gustaf  Vasa  and  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  closes  with  certain 
definite  things  accomplished  and  certain  otlier  things  indicated.  The 
coronation  of  Gustaf  Vasa  meant  the  end  of  tlie  Union  of  Calmar. 
though  the  demise  of  that  pact  was  not  formally  recognized  till 
the  Peace  of  Stettin,  nearly  a  half-century  afterward.  V,y  the  action 
of  the  diet  of  Copenhagen,  in  1563,  Norway  became  incorporated 

3  It  wac  :n  the  course  of  the  war  of  1643-1645  that  Christian,  wliile  coni- 
nianding  the  fleet  from  his  own  ship  Trcfoldighcd  or  Trinity,  lost  an  eye  and 
was  otherwise  severely  injured  hy  the  splinter  of  a  mast,  wliich  struck  him  in 
the  face  as  he  was  giving  the  word  of  command,  'i'hc  king,  who  was  then 
upwards  of  seventy  years  old,  continued,  neverthclc-s.  to  direct  the  movements 
of  his  fleet,  and  remained  on  deck  till  tlie  increasing  darkness  forced  the  Swedes 
to  take  shelter  in  the  Ray  of  Kiele.  off  the  Island  n\  Femern.  1"he  following 
day  he  drew  a  line  of  ships  across  the  entrance  of  the  hay.  and  lea\ing  his 
admiral,  I'cder  Grdt,  to  watch  the  Swedish  fleet,  returned  to  Copenhagen  to 
<;ci-k  the  rest  which  he  so  much  needed.  To  Christian's  great  mortification. 
Ci.alt  allowed  the  Swedes  to  escape,  an  act  of  carelessness  which  the  unfortunate 
adnu'ral  had  10  expi.ate  with  his  life.  King  Christian's  pergonal  valor  in  this 
engagement  had  heen  made  the  subject  of  a  poem  hy  Ewald,  who  died  in  T7R1. 
and  wa.  one  <  .f  the  greatest  Danish  writers  of  lyrics.  This  song,  beginning  with 
the  word-  '  King  Christian  Ar,<^(\  bcMd.'  the  high  mast,"  has  been  si-t  to  music 
and  I-   n-fd   :i     tiic  ii.-itiourd  anthem  of  Drnmark. 


DENMARK     IN     ECLIPSE  203 

1648 

as  a  province  of  Denmark.  The  Upsala  IMota  of  1593  meant  that 
Scandinavia  was  irretrievably  Protestant  and  irretrievably  Lutheran. 
But  more  than  a  half-century  before  that  date  both  the  Danish 
and  Swedish  churches  had  been  nationalized,  their  property  con- 
fiscated to  the  crown,  their  clergy  deprived  of  political  rank.  In 
Sweden  the  Reformation  had  meant  a  complete  regrouping  of  the 
political  forces  of  the  realm.  The  legislation  of  Charles  IX.  and 
Gustavus  i\dolphus,  taking  cognizance  of  this  fact,  established  the 
constitution  of  Sweden  on  a  new  basis :  an  hereditary  monarchy, 
served  and  advised  by  a  nobility  of  various  grades  and  by  the 
peasant  and  burgher  orders.  Only  in  respect  to  certain  phases  of 
legislative  power  does  the  Swedish  monarch,  after  1629,  fail  of 
absolute  power.  In  Denmark,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Reformation 
enhanced  both  the  wealth  and  power  of  the  lay  magnates.  The 
desperate  straits  in  which  the  Danish  monarchy  found  itself  ne- 
cessitated the  coup  of  Frederick  III.  Owing  to  the  superior  posi- 
tion of  its  rulers,  whose  tremendous  genius  was  afforded  full  and 
free  play,  Sweden  not  only  eclipsed  Denmark  in  the  period  under 
discussion,  but  emerged  from  the  Thirty  Years'  War  one  of  the 
chief  military  powers  of  Europe.  Already,  however,  the  fatal 
rivalry  of  Russia  had  revealed  itself c  Between  1520  and  1540  tl:c 
monopoly  of  the  Hanseatic  towns  was  broken.  Forthwith  Scan- 
dinavian industry,  commerce,  and  town-life  began  an  uninterrupted 
development. 


Chapter    XVi 


s\vki)i:n"s  advance  in  ACouisrriONS  and 

PRESTK^K.     i6.]4-T6..,7 


TUvfS TIa.X.  ilio  .,ii]v  ch:l\  (.f  (^n^lMvns  Adolnlui;^.  nuained 


[lie  ;iLC  nf  c  ii'jlitccn   ill    1 


t'.i  1  ;!:i(l  ])VL'';in  1m  rule  c^n  lioi'  own 


c 

^^_-<^  rc--|i' ■iisil-ihiy.  Slic  li.'u!  iiiliei'ileil  iiinci!  o!  lii-r  fathers 
Irilc'iit  ■.[]}<]  WA<  |)er!i:ii,i-  I'le  iiw-^i  learned  rnid  a,eci;rni)1i>^ied  w'inian 
(n  an  epi/Cii  *m"  learned  wrnncn.  She  had,  in  faet.  reeei^a'd  I'le  cdn- 
<;:;i,.n  Ml"  a  man  naiika-  die  initlci!!  of  the  Ic-arned  Pi-ofcs.-«ir  Mallhiaaa 
W  hen  -lir  eainc  In  die  linaa.ie  she  had  read  'i'luievdidcs  and  F'rilx'hins 
in  die  oricdna.h  eould  write  rnid  spea.k  Eatin,  InTneh.  Hennan.  mad 
se\-erai  '  idler  h'inr;na,q'e-\  r.nd  ^\■^■s  fa.miliar  with  the  the.i^iiQ-v  and 
])hii'>.~' ,1)h}'  taiii;']it  in  the  tmix-ersilies  nt  that  a,Q"e.  She  pnsses.-cd 
niai'lsefl  taste  for  the  fine  arts  a.nd  U^r  the  ]nirsin"t  of  -eienee.  She 
encf )ui"a;^'ed  seieniifie  men  <'it  her  cnin't  and  s])ent  monev.  e\'en  in 
])r- Mhi^-.'ili'w  in  rewa.rdinc;'  artistic  merit  of  all  kinds.  krom  an 
c-ar1y  a,u(.-  -lie  di^pla.ycd  crreat  penetrat iiai  and  in^ii^T;!  into  the 
Ciiaraeie'"-  a:,d  mi^tixa-  nf  odiei"  jjer-nns,  and  re\'ca!ed  a  fascina- 
iK'!!  (<\  manner  wiiic;i  \\"i'>!i  the  coreidLiiee  and  de\a)tinn  (,\  t!i,i-i,' 
ahnnt  her  i)ersMn.  I  kit  as  a  dan^'erniis  olVsei  \i>  her  many  si)kndid 
(inaiides  she  hail  a.l!  l';e  wa\'wardness.  eapia'ee.  re.-tle<sne~s  nf  mind, 
hi'l- !',-ne-s.  :('\e  nf  displaw  and  e  s!ra\aaL!,'a.nee   fiM-  whieh,   iiei"  heanii- 

■  nl  m  'di'-r,  AJaria   hilea U' )ra  (,i  1  handenhnri.;".  had  becai  nnU'i!. 

in  the  iinerwal  <  a'  die  reL;\Mie\'  die  nak'^ial  e--la;e-:  had  >-p]a 
np  'nlM  iriiaif-,  t:a:  a!"i^t: 'crai  ■>  hein;.;"  led  h\-  \\e'  ( )xen-tirrna.  and 
da-  d-'ni '.'yaS.  widi  whnm  t'le  pneen  sided,  hv   inhan  S'':\M*(.'.     'i'lie 

■  ':>■"■_■'.■  -*  r;aj''":i'd  I'-  maiiiKiin  dieir  inde!)eni!(ai>a'  nniiri-  the  Muiiro-:- 


;p'  '  a    ;  .;(■   !i,  i|)|c-..   raid    llie  ])ea 


dc  nnwcr  whie'i  die  r.o-eal  (ni^taf  \disa  liad  yraninl  ihem,  hnt 
wla-h  lii-  na.vc-,.wr^.  e-peeiall\-  ( insla\a;s  Adnlphn-,  liad  ]>.  de-rees 
;'-id  a  h/  r;]-c-;i)i-ci-iht  (h  'fhe  Inn-'dnin  \\a>  m  a  fi'vinrii!  and  eivil 
\'.ar  ■citnc'l  '•;'-\di';hl( .  At  'die  ^aanu-  lime  lla'  CMnnnl  Wi'--  nrpan:^' 
liie  (|';'  ■  ,-'  ,a:aa'', .  .\\  leii'^di.  ader  dmwiiu;  ^pa'al  lahielania-  In 
I'-n  idta'  die  •;Mc'-!.n;;  ai  .-al,  (ini-aiiKi  j)rni),  !-.e(l  jur  ei-ndn,  kaid 
(iii-iai  (.1   die    1 'alaliiiaie.  ,ar;  her  'aieee-^sni  ;    hut.   when  ])ressed  \)y 


m 

,   !^^      lis; 

HV^   ;:- 

j^ii^ 

niRis'ii  \A,  i.)Ii:i;n  m-  swkiik.v 

(i;orn     1  (._•(..       I'iril     i  n.S'l  I 


S  W  E  D  E  N  '  S     AD  \  A  N  C  E  205 

1654 

the  council  and  by  the  prince  himself  to  give  him  her  hand,  slie 
would  only  bind  herself  so  far  as  to  declare  that  she  would  take 
no  other  for  her  husband.  After  much  opposition,  therefore.  Karl 
Gustaf  was  declared  successor  to  the  throne  in  the  event  of  the 
queen's  having  no  children  of  her  own.  Soon  after  this  provi- 
sional settlement  of  the  succession,  Christina  w^as  crowned  amid 
unparalleled  display  and  ceremony.  The  dissensions  in  the  diet 
continued  none  the  less,  being  greatly  aggravated,  in  fact,  by  the 
queen's  profuse  wastefulness  and  her  reckless  squandering  of  the 
property  of  the  crown  upon  her  favorites.  Lands  and  titles  and 
patents  of  nobility  w^re  scattered  broadcast  among  all  classes  so 
that  during  the  reign  the  Riddarlnis  was  augmented  by  thirty-two 
new  counts  and  barons,  and  by  the  admission  of  the  representatives 
of  428  newly  ennobled  families,  including  the  court  tailor,  Jan 
Holm,  who  assumed  the  proud  name  of  Eeijonkrona.  The  same 
baronies  were  so  often  disposed  of  by  sale  that  the  matter  was  taken 
up  by  the  council  in  165 1,  when  the  clerk  of  a  chancery  secretary 
was  publicly  beheaded  for  having  sold  forty-two  false  patents. 

Meanwhile,  under  the  influence  of  Don  Antonio  Pimentelli, 
Spanish  ambassador  at  her  court,  and  her  French  physician,  Bourde- 
lot,  Christina  became  more  and  more  engrossed  by  frivolous  pur- 
suits. Singers,  actors,  dancers,  and  jugglers  were  invited  to  Stock- 
holm and  soon  the  queen  herself  took  part  in  the  plays  and  ballets 
performed  at  the  palace.  Cromwell's  representative,  the  Puritan 
Whitelocke,  has  left  us  a  lively,  if  somewhat  prejudiced,  report 
in  his  journal  of  the  pleasures  and  practices  of  the  Swedish  cour- 
tiers when  he  w'cnt  to  Upsala  in  1654.  Thus,  he  expresses  his 
surprise  and  reprobation  at  the  spectacle  created  by  nobles  going 
along  the  streets  on  a  Sunday,  singing  boisterously  and  at  last 
kneeling  down  in  the  market-place  and  drinking  the  queen's  health 
with  loud  huzzahs.^  Among  the  numerous  foreigners  who  flocked 
into  Sweden  were  Jesuits  in  disguise,  who  came  in  the  hope  of 
converting  Queen  Christina,  perhaps  invited  by  herself:  for,  al- 
though she  continued  while  on  tlie  throne  ])ul)licly  to  ])rofess 
Lutheran  doctrines,  she  expressed  great  interest  in  the  history  of 
Catholicism,  and  in  1655  made  a  formal  declaration  of  her  ;i(lhc- 
sion  to  the  faith  of  tlie  Roman  Church.  Her  extravagance  ex- 
hausted all  sources  of  income,  and  twice  the  ro}-al  kitclien  had  to 

^Whitelocke:   "A  Jourii;il  cif  the   Swedi-^h    Ijiihas.-y   in  th"  years   1C53  and 
1654,"  Morton's  edition.    London,  1855,  vol.  J.  pp.  401  ff. 


206  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1654-1655 

be  closed  for  want  of  money,  and  the  queen's  servants  were  forced 
to  beg  a  dinner  for  themselves  and  their  royal  mistress. 

Early  in  the  year  1654  Christina  informed  her  council  of  her 
fixed  resolution  to  give  up  the  throne,  and  at  a  diet  held  in  May 
at  Upsala  the  terms  of  abdication  were  settled.  After  much  dis- 
cussion it  was  agreed  that  she  was  to  hold  Oeland,  Gothland,  Oesel, 
and  other  districts,  with  a  revenue  of  240,000  rix  dollars.  On  the 
morning  of  June  6  the  final  ceremony  was  accomplished.  The 
queen  came  forth  from  her  apartments  with  the  crown  on  her  head, 
wearing  her  coronation  robes  over  a  simple  white  dress,  and  bearing 
in  her  hands  the  globe  and  scepter.  Taking  her  stand  before  the 
throne  in  the  great  hall  of  the  palace  at  LJpsala,  she  made  farewell 
speeches  to  her  council  and  the  crown  prince;  at  the  close  of 
v.hich  she  walked  down  the  steps  of  the  dais  with  a  firm  tread 
and  laid  aside  the  regalia  one  by  one.  All  present  were  moved  at 
tlie  spectacle,  and  even  men  were  seen  to  shed  tears  as  they  watched 
the  young  queen  cast  aside  all  the  signs  of  royalty.  At  that  mo- 
ment the  old  companions  of  lier  father,  who  had  watched  faithfully 
over  her  in  her  childhood,  forgot  their  causes  for  vexation  with  their 
charge  in  their  grief  at  the  step  she  was  taking.  In  the  afternoon 
of  the  same  day  the  crown  prince  was  proclaimed,  and  crowned  in 
the  presence  of  the  diet  at  the  cathedral,  and  on  the  following  day 
Christina  left  Upsala.  Twelve  ships  of  war  were  lying  ready  off 
Calmar  to  convey  her  and  her  retinue  from  Sweden,  but  instead  of 
embarking  from  tliere,  she  passed  through  Halmstad  and  crossed 
the  Sound  to  Denmark,  proceeding  thence  on  her  travels  through 
Germany  and  the  Low  Countries.  She  took  only  four  Swedes 
with  her,  having  dismissed  all  the  rest  of  her  suite,  and  when 
she  reached  a  little  brook,  which  then  formed  part  of  the  lx)undary 
line  between  Sweden  and  the  Danish  territories  of  Skaania,  she 
got  out  of  her  carriage  and  springing  liglitly  over  the  stream,  ex- 
claimed:  ''  At  last  I  am  free!  and  out  of  vSweden,  to  which  I  hope 
T  may  never  return.'' 

Thus,  strangely  and  dramatically,  did  Queen  Christina  pass 
from  among  her  people.  Her  change  of  religion  and  the  curious 
tales  whicli  were  from  time  to  time  brought  10  Sweden  of  her  mode 
of  h'fe  estranged  more  and  more  her  former  subjects.  She  was 
at  fir^t  received  with  the  greatest  respect  and  enthusiasm  in  the 
Catholic  CMUiitries  that  -^]K•  visited,  but  here.  too.  her  eccentric 
condurt.  hei"  enntemijt  Un-  all   feminine  j)ursnits.  her  constant  want 


SWEDEN'S     ADVANCE  207 

1655-1658 

of  funds,  and  her  disregard  of  the  laws  of  the  lands  in  which  she 
took  up  her  abode,  made  her  in  time  an  unwelcome  and  troublesome 
guest,  one  prince  after  the  other  forcing  her  to  depart  from  his 
dominions.  At  the  death  of  her  cousin  and  successor,  Charles  X., 
she  returned  to  Sweden  and  claimed  the  crown  for  herself,  but 
neither  then  nor  in  1667,  when  she  renewed  her  pretensions,  would 
the  council  encourage  her,  and,  after  a  final  futile  attempt  to  gain 
the  vacant  throne  of  Poland  in  1668.  she  resigned  all  schemes  of 
ever  reigning  again,  and  retired  to  Rome,  where  she  spent  the 
closing  years  of  her  life  in  the  society  of  learned  men,  and  in  the 
indulgence  of  her  taste  for  collecting  rare  books  and  costly  w'orks  of 
art.    There  she  died  in  1689  at  the  age  of  sfxty-three. 

The  short  reign  of  Charles  X.,  from  1655  to  1660,  was  a  time 
of  great  disorder  in  Sweden.  To  obtain  money  to  carry  on  the 
government,  Charles  was  forced  to  exact  from  the  nobles  the  resti- 
tution of  one-fourth  of  the  crown  lands  which  had  been  granted 
to  them  under  former  rulers,  and  to  keep  down  the  restless  discon- 
tent w'hich  had  sprung  up  under  the  late  queen,  he  resolved  to 
engage  the  people  in  active  war.  But  it  was  not  without  difficulty 
that  he  obtained  the  consent  of  the  diet  to  make  the  necessary 
preparations,  and  for  a  time  the  question  remained  undetemiined 
whether  the  arms  of  Sweden  should  be  turned  against  Denmark 
or  Poland.  The  Danish  traitor,  Korfitz  Ulfeld,  strongly  urged  the 
advisability  of  attacking  Denmark,  w-hose  unprotected  condition  was 
well  known  to  him,  but  the  ill-timed  demand  of  the  Polish  king, 
John  Casimir,  to  be  proclaimed  the  true  heir  to  Christina's  throne 
drew  the  initial  attack  upon  Poland.  Charles  X.  was  born  to  be 
a  soldier  and  a  conqueror.  The  success  and  rapidity  with  which 
he  overran  all  Poland  and  crushed  the  Polish  army  in  a  three  days' 
engagement  at  Warsaw  in  1656  showed  liim  a  worthy  pupil  and 
successor  of  his  famous  uncle,  the  great  Gustavus.  But  it  was 
easier  for  him  to  make  conquests  than  to  keep  them.  The  Russians, 
jealous  of  the  increasing  power  of  Sweden,  immediately  entered 
the  war  on  the  side  of  the  Poles,  attacking  Livonia  and  Esthonia. 
At  the  same  moment  an  imperial  army  advanced  to  assist  the  Poles, 
who,  infuriated  at  the  excesses  of  the  Swedish  soldiers,  had  risen 
£71  masse  against  them. 

Charles,  seeing  the  expediency  of  extricating  himself  from  his 
dangerous  situation,  retre:^ted  in  Januarv-.  1658,  across  the  frozen 
Belt   and    fell   upon    l^enmnrk-     iM-cderick    TTT.    having    indi-crcctly 


208 


S  C  A  X  D  I  N  A  \'  I  A 


1658 


joined  tlie  general  alliance  against  Sweden.  The  short  war  that 
followed  was  one  of  the  most  disastrous  in  Danish  history.  It  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  humiliating  Peace  of  Roeskilde,  which 
was  written  out  by  the  traitor,  Korfitz  Ulfeld. 

By  this  pact  Denmark  surrendered  to  Sweden  Drontheim  and 
Aggerhus  in  Norway,  the  c»ld  Danish  provinces  of  Skaani:i,  Hal- 
land,  and  Bleking,  besides  the  islands  of  Lcsso.  Anhalt.  Femern.  and 


Bi-rniiolm.  rnul  tlie  lan(!<  of  llie  1  )iti'narshcs.  I-'rcderick  was  al:Mi 
<'ihh"gcd  to  }ie!d  to  Sweden  rinc-iialf  of  all  Sound  lulls  and  twcUc 
sliip-  of  war.  and  In  pa\-  the  Swedish  Ixing's  bi-Milicr-in-law,  Du1^c 
l''rcdcrick  ill.  of  I  [o] -tcin-Gutlorp,  a  large  monctar}-  indemnity  for 
tlic  damage  done  l!ic  (hike's  fortresses.  The  tiiial  Inmiiliatiou  ^va^ 
ridded  wlicii  (,'liarlc-  X.  iu-i-ted  on  llie  re>litulion  to  L'lfcld  of  all 
his  f(jrfciu'd  land-,  in  i)i';iniark'  and  the  l;!jc!-atii 'ii  <;f  ]'"rederick  of 
I  ioJ~iein-G'.itiorp  from  all    furtlier  oljligations  to  tlie  Danish  king. 


S  W  K  I)  K  N  '  S     A  1)  ^  A  N  ('  i:  S09 

1658-1660 

Despilc  these  alnio.^t  unlimited  coiicessicins,  Cluiiles  X.,  who 
was  undonbtetlly  bent  upon  wiping  out  the  L\inis!i  monarcliv,  re- 
newed the  war  no  fewer  tlian  five  times  in  t!ie  interval  of  tlie  vears 
1 658- 1 660.  At  the  close  of  1658  Copenhag-en  itself  was  on  the 
point  of  surrender.  At  this  moment,  h.owcver,  a  Dutch  fleet  under 
Admirals  Opdam  and  De  A\'itte  forced  its  way  throus^h  the  op- 
posing Swedish  fieet  lying  in  the  Cattegat  and  brought  food  and 
help  to  the  starving  citizens.  Charles  now  determined  to  take  the 
city  by  assault,  and  on  the  night  of  February  lo-ii,  1659,  his 
generals,  Stenbock  and  Sparre,  led  a  storming  party  against  the 
fortifications  of  Copenhagen.  The  citizens,  who  had  received  warn- 
ing of  the  intended  assault,  were,  however,  well  prepared  to  defend 
themselves,  and,  after  a  desperate  conflict,  in  which  many  women 
participated,  by  throwing  burning  brands  and  boiling  tar  on  the 
heads  of  tlie  assailants,  the  Swedes  had  to  fall  back,  leaving  2000 
dead  and  w^ounded  in  the  hands  of  the  Danes.  Relinquishing  his 
attack  on  Copenhagen  for  the  moment,  the  Swedish  king  turned 
his  attention  to  the  small  islands  (^f  Laaland,  Falster,  3-1  oen,  and 
Langeland,  which,  in  expiation  of  the  ofi'ense  of  having  supplied 
the  capital  with  provisions,  were  overrun  and  subjected  to  all  the 
horrors  of  invasion  by  troops  to  whom  every  excess  and  license 
were  allowed.  King  Frederick  showed  both  fortitude  and  sagacity 
in  the  fearful  position  in  which  he  found  hini>elf  placed.  At  la-i 
he  succeeded,  by  his  earnest  representations  to  foreign  powers,  in 
securing  the  intervention  of  France.  Fngland.  and  Holland.  A 
conference,  held  at  The  Hague,  dispatched  a  Dutch  ileet  under  .^d- 
miral  de  Ruyter  to  the  aid  of  the  oppressed  D.-uies.  By  his  hel]) 
the  Danish  king  was  enabled  to  embark  an  anny.  composed  of 
Danes  and  allied  troops,  for  the  relief  of  l')cn.  where  they  obtained 
decided  advantages  over  tlie  .Sv^cdisli  c<^'r.manders,  the  Count  Pala- 
tine of  Sulzbach  and  Count  Stenbock. 

Charles  nrjw  decided  to  direct  the  war  ;!ga!nst  Xorv;ay.  and  for 
this  purpose  called  together  the  diet  at  Goteborg.  and  demanded  new 
troops  and  fresh  subsidies.  Fven  wliile  the  estates  were  sitting  the 
king  was  seized  of  a  sudden  ihness.  to  wliich  he  succumbed  in  mid- 
winter,  1660,  at  the  age  of  th.irty-cight. 

With  Ch.arles  X.  a  new  dynasty — tliat  of  the  Palatinate — ^as- 
cended  tlie  Swedish  throne,  but.  altluiugh  he  w:is  the  son  o,f  •';,■ 
Count  Palatine,  John  Casimir,  he  can  scarcely  be  reckoned  a  for- 
eign prince,  for  he  had  been  l)ronght  up  in  Sweden  ;'.nd  was  ilu.r- 


5210  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  \  I  A 

16^8■1060 

oughly  Swedish  in  speech,  habits,  and  modes  of  thinking.  His 
mother,  Katerina,  the  only  sister  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  had  been 
careful  to  educate  him  in  a  manner  that  might  fit  him  for  ruling 
over  Sweden,  as  she  had  from  his  childhood  cherished  the  hope 
that  he  would  marr}-  his  royal  cousin.  He  was  a  man  of  sound 
sense  and  strong  will,  and  possessed  great  capacity  for  ruling, 
but  his  insatiable  thirst  for  war  so  thoroughly  absorbed  his  time 
and  attention  that  he  was  not  able  to  effect  any  considerable  insti- 
tutional improvements  for  his  people  in  the  course  of  his  short 
reign.  By  the  few  reforms  which  he  brought  about,  however,  he 
manifested  anxiety  to  extend  the  resources  of  the  working  classes 
by  introducing  and  encouraging  manufactures,  while  he  helped  to 
augment  the  national  credit  by  introducing  something  like  order 
into  the  national  finances. 

By  the  early  death  of  Charles  X.,  Sweden  was  again  brought 
under  regency,  for  Charles  XI.  was  only  four  years  old  when  he 
became  king.  By  the  will  of  his  father,  his  mother,  Hedwig 
Eleanore  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  and  his  uncle.  Duke  Johan,  were  ap- 
pointed members  of  the  council  of  regency,  whicli  also  included 
Magnus  de  la  Gardie,  his  uncle  by  marriage.  But  the  chief  officers 
of  state,  objecting  to  the  presence  of  so  many  members  of  the 
royal  family,  tried  to  set  aside  the  will  of  the  late  king,  on  the 
ground  that  a  woman  could  not  legally  sit  at  the  council  board,  and 
that  Duke  Jolian,  as  a  German-born  prince,  was  also  ineligible.  Tlie 
diet,  however,  confirming  all  the  provisions  of  the  royal  will,  the 
regency  was  carried  on  in  the  form  which  Charles  had  prescribed, 
bnt  in  sucli  a  spirit  of  mutual  ill-will  among  the  members  that  the 
interest  of  tlie  kingdom  was  generally  defeated  in  tlie  furtherance 
of  private  grudges.  Every  department  (jf  the  government  suffered 
from  nii-management,  the  army  and  navy  were  neglected,  the 
defenses  cjf  the  frontier  fell  into  decay,  and  tlie  ])ublic  servants 
went  unpaid. 

Tlie  regency  took  one  commendable  step,  however :  it  brouglit 
tlie  late  king's  numerous  wars  to  a  close  by  a  series  of  treaties  most 
adw'iiitageous  to  Sweden.  Bv  the  Peace  of  Oliva — -so-called  from 
the  mona-tery  near  Dantzig,  within  whose  walls  it  was  signed— - 
John  Ga'-imir  fore\er  abandoned  the  pretensions  of  the  Polish  house 
to  ihr  ihroiic  I  if  Sweden,  as  well  as  his  claims  upon  Esthonia  and 
Livonia.  \'>y  the  Peace  of  Co])enhagen,  the  same  year — 1660 — 
Denmark  fore\er  surrendererl  the  southern  part  of  the  Scandinavian 


SWEDEN'S     ADVANCE  211 

1660-1675 

peninsula,  which  had  been  already  ceded  by  the  Peace  of  Roes- 
kilde,  but  recovered  Drontheim  and  Bornholm.  By  the  Peace  of 
Kardis  (1661)  Sweden  and  Russia  made  reciprocal  surrenders  of 
territory. 

In  consequence  of  these  numerous  treaties,  Sweden's  g-reat 
army  was  now  without  employment,  and  of  this  fact  the  regency 
availed  themselves  in  order  to  relieve  their  financial  difficulties. 
The  "  pride  of  Sweden  "  was  split  up  into  contingents,  which  were 
let  for  hire  to  various  European  powers.  The  regency  also  began 
the  policy  of  systematically  accepting  subsidies  from  various  mon- 
archs,  particularly  from  Louis  XIV.,  a  vicious  practice  which  ul- 
timately reduced  Sweden  to  a  mere  pawn  of  the  house  of  Bourbon, 
and  cornipted  root  and  branch  her  government  and  administration. 

Meantime,  the  young  king  grew  to  maturity,  receiving  no  very 
careful  education,  for  the  queen-mother  was  a  woman  of  meager 
mental  capacity  who  neither  cared  for,  nor  knew  anything  of,  in- 
tellectual pursuits,  but  concerned  herself  almsot  exclusively  about 
her  son's  physical  health.  Charles,  arriving  at  his  eighteenth  year, 
was  declared  of  age,  and,  upon  the  resignation  of  the  regency,  be- 
gan to  reign  of  his  own  initiative.  During  tlie  opening  years  of  his 
reign  the  young  ruler,  along  with  a  formidable  will  of  his  own, 
displayed  a  great  distaste  for  business,  which  only  time  overcame. 
Riding,  hunting,  fencing,  and  the  companionship  of  other  youtlis 
engrossed  his  attention,  while  for  his  councilors  he  had  but  distrust 
and  suspicion.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was  of  a  devout  turn  of 
mind,  and  of  blameless  conduct,  if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  silence 
upon  this  point   of  his  many  bitter  critics  of  a  later  day. 

In  1674  Louis  XIV.,  in  conformity  with  the  secret  treaty 
which  the  regents  had  concluded  with  him  two  years  before,  called 
upon  Charles  to  lend  aid  against  certain  |)rinccs  of  the  empire. 
Charles  sent  an  army  into  Germany,  which  advanced  without  oppo- 
sition into  the  heart  of  Brandenburg,  but  before  the  allies  could 
effect  a  junction  in  the  Rhinelands  the  (ireat  Elector  was  u|)on  the 
Swedes  at  Eehrbellin.  The  Swedish  losses  were  n(^t  excessive,  but 
the  result  of  their  defeat  was  to  encourage  the  ancient  rivals  of  that 
kingdom,  and  early  in  1675  both  Holland  and  Denmark  declared 
war  upon  Charles. 

For  fifteen  years  Sweden  had  enjoyed  uninterrupted  and  neg- 
lectful peace.  Accordingly,  when  the  young  king  entered  ui)on  the 
war  that  now  confronted  him.  he  speedily  found  that  both  his  tleet 


21J2  S  C  A  N  1)  1  N  A  VIA 

1675-1680 

and  his  military  defenses  were  in  great  decay.  The  consequence 
was  that  the  Danes,  under  their  great  admiral.  Xiels  Juel.  and 
snp]iorted  by  a  Dutch  squadron,  easily  defeated  the  Swedish  ileet 
off  Oeland.  burning  many  of  its  vessels  and  sinking  others. 

On  land  the  contest  was  less  one-sided.  In  16^6  Charles  de- 
feated the  Danes  in  a  most  sanguinary  battle  on  the  snow-C()\-ered 
hills  of  Lund,  though  at  the  cost  of  half  his  own  army.  In  Ger- 
many the  Swedish  forces  fought  gallantly,  but  with  little  success, 
under  Otto  Konigsmark.  Charles  gladly  \\-elcomc(l  the  generaJ 
peace  which  1679  brought,  l^y  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germains  Swetlcn. 
recoyered  Pomerania,  while  all  Swedish  and  Danish  conquests  were 
mutually  renounced.  At  the  same  time.  Charles  XI.  marricil  the 
Danish  princess.  Ulrica  Eleanora,  whose  gentle  influence  and  con- 
stant endeayor  to  maintain  friendly  relations  between  the  two 
northern  kingdoms  made  h.er  subjects  regard  her  as  a  second 
iMX'd  Kulla.  or  "  peace  maiden." 

Charles  XL  now  began  in  good  earnest  to  set  his  kingdom  in 
order.  In  tlie  stern  j)olicy  which  he  pursued  toward  the  higher 
nobility  he  was  mainly  inlluenced  by  the  counsels  of  his  devoted 
friend,  the  able  Johan  Gyllenstjerna,  who.  t(\gether  with  his  chief 
supporters,  Klas  hdeming  and  Erik  Lin(lsk(")l'l.  m;ide  a  thorough 
i'ive>tigation  into  the  conduct  of  ex'ery  dei)arlmcnt  of  state.  Among 
other  disclosures,  their  inc|uiries  brought  to  liglit  the  ;dnio--L  hope- 
less condition  of  the  royal  finances.  There  was  absolutely  no  mone_\' 
al  the  king's  (lisf)o';al.  while  nearly  a.ll  the  ci'own  lands  whicli  had 
been  squandered  by  Christina  still  remained  in  the  hands  of  their 
])urcliascrs.  In  \-ie\v  f)f  this  situation,  C'harle^  made  a  direct  aj)i)eal 
to  the  nation.al  estates.  \\'ith  their  con>c!it  the  former  regein> 
and  councilors  were  called  ui)on  in  i6(So  to  refinid  fve  million  -ilx'cr 
do'lars,  wliich  the}'  had  wn  rngfully  api)ri  n)iL'iie(l.  Tiie  e-^tatcs 
•  •Tiller  grauicd  lo  Ch.arles  tlie  right  of  "  Kcduction."  as  it  wri> 
c::iU'd,  namelw  tlic  i)o\\-er  to  "  diTiw^  bad:  "  some  i'\  llic  crown  lands 
vLich  had  bc-cn  wanlonlv  alienated  by  former  ru'ers  'fhis  mcas- 
I'rc,  wliieh  wa-  at  fir.-t  re>tricled  to  estates  ac(juircd  within  tlie 
j)rc'\-iou^  tliirtx-  \iar,->.  and  to  onl\"  a  fourth  part  of  tlie  land^  in 
fjue-tion,  led  ;:i  inc  course  of  time  b\-  llie  sex'erii}'  with  which  it 
\\a-  uUim;itci\-  cr,  1.  iiwd  to  the  inipo\  crishnient  of  noble  families 
oivc  the  \\e::';hH  '  if  Sweden.  Tlin<,  e\en  ("onnt  Magnus  de  la 
Cardie,  v  h  1  w;;-  I'c  !;::d):[nd  of  ( 'ji:i"ae-'":s  aunt,  llie  Princt'^^  .Mai"ie 
f"u])hr'  .-iiie.  w  :i  -  ^lej):  w  c'L  n  al!  he  Mw  ned.  :[\\i\   l"'  'ixed  t^  di-in'--  all 


SWEDEN'S     ADVANCE  213 

1680-1697 

his  servants.  But  the  king,  who  had  a  great  deal  of  iron  in  his 
makeup  and  deeply  resented  the  former  arrogance  of  his  nobility, 
manifested  no  compassion  for  the  sufferers,  and  never  paused  till 
he  had  thoroughly  crushed  their  power  and  reduced  the  national 
estates  to  the  condition  of  a  mere  chamber  of  ratification,  summoned 
only  to  approve  and  confirm  the  royal  acts.  At  length,  the  estates, 
in  1693,  proclaimed  him  absolute  sovereign  king,  "  who  had  the 
power  and  right  to  rule  his  kingdom  as  he  pleased." 

Thus,  King  Charles  XL  of  Swed.  1  became  an  absolute  sov- 
ereign by  a  bloodless  revolution,  and,  it  may  be  added,  that  he  used 
his  power  for  the  good  of  liis  people.  He  spent  the  money  which 
the  regents  had  been  forced  to  refund  in  paying  off  some  of  the 
national  debt,  and  in  making  many  important  improvements,  lie 
put  the  army  and  fleet  on  a  war  footing,  granted  land  to  his  sol- 
diers, who  in  time  of  peace  were  thus  converted  into  useful  citi- 
zens, and  took  stringent  measures  to  give  a  Swedish  character  to 
the  old  Danish  provinces  of  Skaania  and  Bleking:  wlii]e  he  so 
thoroughly  crushed  the  power  of  the  independent  nol)1cs  nf  Livonia 
and  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Sweden  that  many  of  these  ancient 
families  preferred  exile  to  the  restrictions  imposed  upon  them. 

The  Swedisli  church  was  also  brought  r.nder  a  new  code  and 
made  more  distinctly  a  factor  in  the  general  education  of  the  people 
tlian  had  before  been  the  case.  This,  at  least,  was  Charles's  ideal 
for  his  people,  among  v/hom,  Vvith  all  his  liarshness.  lie  Wc'is  a 
popular  king.  On  the  journeys  which,  in  his  eager  quest  of  infor- 
mation, he  made  through  all  parts  of  his  dominions  witli  tiie  pur- 
pose of  seeing  and  judging  for  himself  of  thic  real  condition  (d 
his  subjects,  he  entered  freely  into  their  amusements  and  listened 
patiently  to  the  numerous  petitions  and  complaints  laid  before  him. 
The  last  years  of  his  reign  were  afilicted  with  an  almost  total 
failure  of  the  crops  and  a  murrain  among  the  cattle,  which  are  said 
to  have  led  to  the  starvation  of  nearly  100,000  ])ersons,  nt^twilli- 
standing  the  measures  which  the  king  caused  to  be  taken  in  their 
relief.  After  a  long  and  painful  illness,  Charles  XI.  died  in  ify-)/ 
at  the  age  of  forty-two,  having  survived  his  queen  only  a  few 
months,  and  leaving  tlnxc  children,  the  eldest  of  whom  succeeded 
him  under  the  title  of  Charles  Xil. 


Chapter    XVII 


THE   GREAT  NORTHERN   WAR   AND  THE   DECLINE 
OF  ABSOLUTE   POWER.     1697-1771 

CHARLES  XL  in  his  will  and  testament  ordered  that  a 
reg'ency  be  appointed  in  the  interval  of  his  heir's  minority. 
The  national  estates,  however,  reverting  in  thought,  un- 
doubtedly, to  the  corruption  and  incompetence  of  the  last  regency. 
forthwith  declared  Charles  XIL  of  age,  though,  in  fact,  he  was 
but  fifteen  years  old.  Nor  was  the  young  ruler  in  the  'east  dis- 
mayed, but  summoning  the  various  estates  to  do  him  homage,  with 
his  own  hands  he  placed  his  crown  upon  his  head,  thus  pronouncing 
both  his  conviction  of  the  unqualified  nature  of  his  authority,  and 
the  independence  of  his  personal  character.  The  latter  he  also 
manifested  by  the  reluctance  with  which  he  took  advice  from  his 
council  of  state.  Only  the  words  of  his  favorite,  Karl  Piper,  had 
much  weight  with  him. 

luill  Hedged  in  his  man's  obstinacy,  Charles,  none  the  less,  by 
his  mofle  of  life,  revealed  his  youth's  immaturity.  Very  soon  he 
had  squandered  the  funds  that  his  father  had  laboriously  accumu- 
lated. Xor  did  he  stop  short  with  his  fortune,  for  he  was  as  ready 
I'j  cx])osc  his  life  in  all  sorts  of  breakneck  sports,  jousts,  and  bear 
Ininls.  Tlie  consequence  of  this  youthful  exuberance  of  spirit  was 
destined  to  be  international,  for  it  conduced  to  an  erroneous  estima- 
linn  of  CJiarlcs's  capacity  on  the  j)art  of  certain  neighboring  nion- 
arch--.  three  of  whom,  Charles's  own  cousin,  Frederick  IX.  of 
Denmark,  Tsar  Peter  of  Russia,  and  Augustus  IL,  King  of  Poland 
and  I'dector  of  Sax(^ny.  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  time  was 
rii)e  I'or  the  paiiition  of  Swedish  dominions.  The  plot  was  re- 
vealed, wlien,  early  in  1700.  Augusttts  invaded  Lix'onia,  while  the 
Danes  attacked  Charles's  brother-in-law.  the  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Cottor]),  and.  after  taking  Gottorp,  laid  siege  to  Tonningen. 

Charles  XII.  was  not  yet  out  of  his  teens,  but  he  evinced  neither 
sm-j)ri'-e  nor  p.anic  at  the  treachery  of  his  supposed  friends  and 
:il!;e-.        XhandnniiiL;-    hii-(,-\cr   lii-   youthful    pastimes    for   the   better 


G  R  E  A  T     N  O  R  1^  HER  X     W  A  K  ^1 5 

1700 

sport  of  war,  he  turned  to  repel  the  danger  that  threatened  his 
throne  and  his  people.  Dispatching  an  army  of  Swedes  and  Lnne- 
burghers  to  the  relief  of  Tonningen,  he,  at  the  same  time,  applied  to 
William  of  Orange  for  naval  assistance.  The  War  of  the  Spanisli 
Succession  was  impending.  Loath  to  see  the  Swedes  return  to 
their  old-time  intimacy  with  the  house  of  Bourbon.  William  im- 
mediately complied  with  a  fleet  of  Dutch  and  English  vessels, 
which,  being  joined  by  the  Swedish  fieet,  proceeded  to  bombard 
Copenhagen.  This  enterprise  meeting  with  but  indifferent  success. 
Charles  determined  on  a  land  attack,  and,  with  this  end  in  view, 
effected  a  landing  at  Humelebek.  As  he  led  his  men  ashore,  tlie 
water  surged  about  him  and  the  enemy's  bullets  whistled  past 
him :  "  This,"  he  exclaimed.  "  is  the  very  best  music  I  have  ever 
heard,  and  I  shall  care  for  no  other  as  long  as  I  live."  His  display 
of  bravado,  however,  was  less  astounding  than  the  natural  talent 
that  he  revealed  from  the  outset  for  solving  the  more  difficult  prob- 
lems of  warfare.  He  moved  his  troops  with  celerity  and  encamped 
them  with  expedition ;  he  maintained  a  degree  of  discipline 
that  in  that  day  and  age  of  the  world  w^as  all  but  unheard  of;  tlic 
Sjaelland  peasants,  upon  whom  he  quartered  his  troops,  received 
with  astonishment,  which  was  none  the  less  genuine  because  it 
was  grateful,  pay  for  provisions  and  provender,  which  they  had 
already  resigned  themselves  to  be  deprived  of  by  force. 

Most  marvelous  of  all,  however,  were  the  tremendous  exer- 
tions of  which  he  was  personally  capable.  A  companion  in  arms 
in  later  years,  Prince  Maximilian  of  Wurtemberg,^  relates  that,  on 
one  occasion,  the  king  and  he,  after  riding  i8o  miles  in  twenty-four 
hours,  suddenly  found  their  way  barred  by  a  large  lake.  "  After 
searching  about  for  some  time  they  found  at  last  the  hollowed-out 
trunk  of  a  tree  which  served  the  rude  fishermen  of  tliese  parts  as 
a  boat.  Charles  at  once  jumped  into  it.  seized  tlie  paddles,  and 
bade  the  prince  sit  behind  and  hold  the  horses  by  the  bridles 
as  they  swam  after  them.  When  they  got  into  the  middle  of  the 
lake,  and  were  out  of  sight  of  land,  the  horses  grew  so  restive  that 
they  nearly  upset  the  boat,  and  for  some  hours  the  king  and  prince 
were  in  extreme  peril;  and  tliis  was  only  one  of  mruiy  simil.ir 
escapades." 

Seeing  his  capital  invested  by  land  and  water,  Frederick  of 
Denmark  agreed  to  a  peace.  Charles  now  turned  to  the  relief  of 
Riga,  whose  garrison   under  Dahlbcrg  was  maintaining  a  gallant 

1  R.  Nislx-t  Bain:  '' Charles  \ll,"    (Heroes  of  llic  Nations),  p.    r.^o. 


^UG  SCA^DIXA^■IA 

1700-1704 

(ivi'dL-e  against  an  army  of  L'oks,  Kussian>,  aiul  Saxons.  Triuniph- 
iii!^'  a;_;a.in,  Charles  next  advanced  into  Ingermannland,  toward 
Xarw'i,  before  ^vhich  an  arm\'  of  Oo,ooo  Russians  commanded  by 
the  Due  de  Croy  had  sat  d(nvn.  Here  Charles  performed  the  most 
brilliant  feat  of  his  career  of  arms.  Advancing  with  but  8000 
men.  by  seemingly  impassable  roads,  he  attacked  his  vasth'  more 
numer(_)us.  btit  undisciplined,  foe  in  their  trenches.  So  precipitate 
was  the  tlight  of  the  Russians  that  18,000  of  them  were  drowned 
in  the  Xarva,  and  so  many  were  made  prisoners  by  the  Swedes  that 
Charles,  after  disarming  them,  gave  them  their  liberty,  in  despair 
(jf  maintaining  them. 

Charles  XII.  h:id  now  repelled  every  invader  from  his  do- 
minions and  had  disclosed  a  proclivity  for  sheer  fighting  that  was 
a  standing  admonition  to  all  others  who  may  have  meditated  in- 
vasion. It  were  well  had  he  rested  content  with  having  effected  so 
much.  Rut  the  adulation  that  mankind  could  n(^t  withhold  from 
his  astountling  genitis  did  not  lessen  the  self-will  of  the  \'(.)ung 
monarch  ;  and  success  bred  a  desire  for  revenge  upon  those  who 
had  held  him  in  low  esteem;  moreover,  in  Charles's  estimation  war 
was  neither  more  nor  less  than  the  most  joyous  and  glorious  of 
exercises.  Turning  southward  in  1701,  he  adwanced  into  Poland, 
took  Warsaw  by  storm,  and  from  the  field  of  Klissov  drove  Augus- 
tus into  his  hereditary  dfjminions  of  Saxony.  In  1703  he  captured 
Thorn  and  Danizig.  ^'et.  despite  the  favor.able.  ]:iosition  in  which 
these  successes  left  him,  Charles  was  still  obdurate  in  the  luatter 
of  a  peace.  Having  had  to  resist  the  blandishments  of  the  famous 
Aurora  Rouigsmarck,  one  of  the  I'olish  king's  numerous  mistresses, 
whom  .\ngustus  had  sent  to  wheedle  Ids  fearful  antagonist  into 
a  peace,  at  the  beginning  of  the  vear,  Charles  had  now  come  to 
regard  war  as  the  necessary  vindication  of  his  manly  honor.  It 
v.as  in  vain,  therefore,  that  the  faithful  Karl  Riper  ])rcsented  an 
elaborati:  mcnujrial,  in  August,  vehemently  urging  peace.  L'harles 
was  bent  on  dethroning  Augustus,  l^ut  even  if  he  did  bi"ing  this 
about,  I'iper  pcrlincntl}'  intpn'red,  could  he  keep  h\-  own  candidate 
on  the  ^hjjpery  Polish  throne?  Was  it  not  ab-urd.  the  memorialist 
jjcr^i-ted.  to  continue  a  profitless  foreign,  war,  while  the  Russians 
were  ravaging  Swedi-h  territorx'?  |-"inal!\',  did  it  becunie  a  Chris- 
tian ni  .uai'ch  \n  nianife-t  such  \-in(licii\  encss  again-t  a  ioe  who 
oltercii  rc]j;ii-atiMn  and  ^1  night  forgi\eness  ?  The  king's  response 
was  to  a])])i/int   I'iper  chan(,;e!lor  of  L'p^ala  L'nl\'ersity. 


GREAT     XORTIIEKX     WAR  217 

1704-1706 

To  his  field-secretary,  Hermelin,  he  disclosed  his  proc^ramme :  - 
"  We  have  ten  years  yet  to  fight  with  the  Poles,  and  then  twenty 
years  more  of  fighting  with  the  Rnssians."  *'  In  that  case,"  replied 
the  secretary,  "  those  of  your  majesty's  soldiers  who  happen  to  sm*- 
vive  at  all  will  certainly  be  well  disciplined."  Ills  majesty  granted 
they  would,  and  rejoined:  "Well,  soldiers  ought  to  be  well  dis- 
ciplined, ought  they  not?" 

In  February,  1704,  Charles  procured  the  deposition  of  Augus- 
tus by  the  diet  of  Warsaw  and  the  election  of  Stanislaus  Leczinski, 
the  Voivad  of  Posen,  to  the  Polish  throne.  But  the  following  Au~ 
gust  the  deposed  monarch  was  back  at  Warsaw,  at  llie  head  of  a 
powerful  army  of  Russians  and  Saxons.  Horn,  ilie  Swedish  com- 
mander of  the  citadel,  was  compelled  to  surrender,  and  Stanislaus 
himself  narrowly  escaped  capture.  Charles,  meanwhile,  was  sub- 
jugating southern  Poland.  No  sooner,  ho\^•evcr,  did  he  learn  oi 
Augustus's  arrival  than  he  set  off  at  headlong  speed,  first  for  the 
Polish  capital  and  then  in  pursuit  of  Augustus,  who  was  already 
in  retreat  when  Charles  set  out.  Traver.-ing  its  last  three  hundred 
and  sixty  miles  in  nine  days,  the  Swedish  army  overtook  the  Saxons 
at  Punitz.  Augustus's  commander,  Schulenberg,  had  an  advantage 
in  numbers  of  nearly  three  to  one,  but  lie  was  utterly  defeated  and 
was  glad  to  avail  himself  of  nightfall  to  continue  his  fiight.  Charles, 
pursuing  his  foe  some  distance  into  Silesia,  returned  shortly  to 
Ravitz  on  the  Saxon  frontier.  In  Se].)tember,  1705,  Stanislatis 
was  crowned  at  Warsaw  and  a  treaty  of  alliruice,  directed  against 
Russia  and  the  Saxon  elector,  was  effected  l)et\\een  Charles  and 
the  Polish  republic.  The  court  of  iierlin  also  proffered  an  alliance, 
but  these  overtures  Ch.'irles  liritightily  rejected.  Thus  nine  months 
of  military  inactivity  ])assc(l.  In  the  late  autumn  of  1705  Charles 
overran  Pithuania,  and,  early  in  January.  1706,  shut  up  a  Russian 
army  in  Grodno.  -\t  the  l)e!test  of  h.is  terrified  ally,  the  ts;u-.  Augus- 
tus again  restitncd  arms  and  was  tcrrii)ly  ]xinishe(l  for  his  presump- 
tion by  kehnskiold  at  i'^ran^tadt.  The  Saxon  elector,  in  despair, 
now  disbanded  his  army  and  retired  into  (fracow.  Fn  Augtist,  1706, 
Charles,  again  at  the  head  of  the  tiir'tcd  Swedish  forces,  cros.-ed  the 
X'istula  into  Saxon}'. 

The  descent   of  the  x'ictorii  >ns  Swcfiish  arnix-  ni)on  Ihe  cinpii'e 

j)r(M,lnced  the  grealest    i'oii-lei"ii:ttlon   in    !fur'.p{.-.      The    \\  :ii-  (.1    ihc 

S[»anish    Surccssion   \\a>   now   ;it    U.-,   iiciglii.      I\aitge!    imi    \\\c   mhi/ 

side    were    hjigland,    I'lc    cinijire,     I  lolland,    and     S,!\(i_\:    nii    the 

-  I-t.    Xi-bcL   Baiu:    "  CliarK>    Xll."      (IJerue,   ul    ilic    Naliuiu-j,   i).    1  lu. 


iilH  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1706-1707 

otlier,  France  and  Spain.  True,  Marlborough  had  achieved  a  great 
victory  over  Villeroi.  at  Ramillies,  in  May.  and  a  few  days  after 
Charles's  irruption  into  Saxony,  Eugene  had  defeated  the  French 
at  Turin.  Yet,  how  easily  might  victory  still  be  snatched  from 
the  uncertain  grasp  of  the  allies,  if  Charles  XII.  should  choose  to 
remember  and  honor  Sweden's  traditional  friendship  for  France! 
Throughout  the  autumn,  winter,  and  .spring  of  1 706-1 707  the 
Swedish  monarcli.  now  the  arbiter  of  Europe,  kept  a  rude  war- 
rior's court  at  Altranstadt.  near  Leipzig,  for  the  most  polished 
embassies  of  Europe.  The  great  Marlborough  himself  came  hither 
in  April.  1707.  to  secure  by  diplomacy,  and  by  bribes  if  need  be, 
what  he  had  won  by  a  military  genius  more  consummate  even  than 
that  of  the  Swedish  king.  Ushered  into  the  presence  of  Charles,  the 
duke  presented  a  letter  from  his  queen,  and  said :  "  Had  not  her 
sex  prevented  it.  she  would  have  crossed  the  sea  to  see  a  prince 
admired  by  the  whole  universe.  T  am  in  this  particular  more  happy 
than  the  queen,  and  I  wish  I  could  seiwe  some  campaigns  under 
so  great  a  general  as  your  majesty,  that  I  might  learn  what  1 
yet  want  to  know  of  the  art  of  war."  ^  Charles,  visibly  pleased  by 
this  splendid  llattery,  expressed  his  utmost  regard  for  the  interests 
of  the  grand  alliance.  However,  "he  would  do  nothing  to  the 
prejudice  of  the  Protestant  religion."  Marlborough,  taking  the 
cue  thus  offered,  argued  dexterously  to  show  that  the  grand 
alliance,  in  defending  the  balance  of  power,  was  also  fighting  to 
I)revent  the  destruction  of  religious  liberty,  a  contention  apparently 
confirmed  by  the  action  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.  in  according  lib- 
erty of  wrirship  to  his  I'rotestant  Silesian  subjects.  On  other 
matters  Charles  ])reser\  ed  his  usual  imperturbability  and  tacitur- 
nity. To  small  ])ur])ose.  however,  it  would  seem,  for  so  confident 
\\;i>  MarllK)rr)ugh  that  he  had  penetrated  the  Swedish  king's  design 
u>  turn  liis  ;irnis  next  against  the  tsar,  that  he  proffered  not  tlie 
'^uggc-tion  of  a  bribe,  but  thriftily  i)ockete(l  the  corruption  fund 
hini>cli.  [.ater.  an  cniis>ary  from  L(uu'>  X\T.,  a  Swiss  merchant, 
l.oui.-  having  foreseen  tlie  futilit}'  of  a  conspicious  embassy,  suc- 
ceeded, liy  dint  (jf  persistent  endeavor,  in  penetrating  the  close 
cordon  ot  o])posing  enn"ssaries  and  agents  about  Charles's  person. 
The  Swedish  king,  however,  was  absolutely  deaf  to  every  project 
.'.if  alliance  with  the  monardi  who  had  revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes 

"W.    r'oxc:    '•  >!(-ninir-    of   \ho   Dnkc   nf   M.irlborough,"   vol.    II.   pp.   45-46. 

'    Ivl     of    (P^H) 


GREAT     NORTHERN     WAR  219 

1707-1708 

and  had  authorized  the  atrocities  of  the  Dragonnadcs.  The  un- 
successful legate  got  his  revenge  by  writing  down  a  very  circum- 
stantial and  unlovely  account  of  the  filthy  attire  and  generally 
slovenly  appearance  of  the  "  Cynosiu'c  of  mankind."  ^ 

Finally,  in  September,  1707,  Charles  consented  to  the  Peace 
of  Altranstadt  with  Augustus.  Augustus  abdicated  the  Polish 
crown  to  Stanislaus,  abjured  his  alliance  with  the  tsar,  and  de- 
livered the  tsar's  plenipotentiary.  Patkul,  to  Charles,  who  had  him 
broken  on  the  wheel,  beheaded,  and  quartered.  The  king  of 
Sweden  thus  sated  his  desire  for  vengeance ;  but  not  one  single 
substantial  advantage  did  his  kingdom  glean  from  this  peace  to 
recompense  her  for  years  of  w^asted  revenues. 

In  the  meantime  the  tsar  had  been  improving  the  immunity 
which  he  had  enjoyed  since  Narva,  disciplining  his  armies  and 
indomitably  renewing  his  project  of  securing  an  outlet  for  his 
people  upon  the  Baltic.  In  both  Ingermannland  and  Livonia,  two 
Swedish  provinces,  he  had  secured  a  foothold,  despite  the  feeble 
efforts  of  the  undersized  garrisons  that  Charles  had  left  in  those 
regions  to  opp(xse  his  advance ;  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Neva  was 
lavishly  expending  the  lives  alike  of  his  own  subjects  and  of  his 
prisoners  of  war,  in  laying  the  foundations  of  the  capital  wliicli 
to-day  bears  his  name. 

When  Charles  broke  camp  in  the  spring  of  1708  the  course 
that  he  took  was  characteristically  bold  and  devoid  of  calculation. 
He  could  not  think  of  himself  assuming  the  defensive.  Accord- 
ingly, instead  of  starting  for  the  scene  of  Peter's  aggressions,  he  set 
out  for  Moscow.  At  the  same  time  he  struck  an  alliance  with  Ivan 
Mazeppa,  a  hetman  of  the  Ckranian  Cossacks,  who  promised  a 
force  of  30,000  men.  In  order  to  get  into  communication  with 
Mazeppa  Charles  w-as  soon  compelled  to  change  his  line  (.f  march 
for  the  Ukraine.  The  difficulties  of  the  route  were  tremendous, 
but  at  first  it  seemed  as  if  nothing  could  impede  the  advance  of 
the  Sw^edes. 

At  Holovin,  on  the  Dnieper,  they  gave  the  Russians  ])itched 
battle  and  routed  them.  \\'ithout  waiting  for  his  general,  Leven- 
haupt,  who  was  to  have  joined  him  with  rcinforcemcuts  from 
Courland,  Charles  pushed  coniidently  on,  (;nly  pausing  in  his  in- 
sane march  when  the  excessive  cold  forced  him  to  go  i)ito  winter 

♦This    document   was   but   recently    brought    to    light    by    the    hitc    Cahriel 
.Svveton. 


U20  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  V  I  A 

1708-1709 

tjuarters.  The  season  was  more  llian  commonly  severe  even  for 
lliat  climate,  and  the  Swedes  suffered  greatly  from  hunger  and 
cold.  Charles  shared  cheerfully  in  their  privations,  eating  the 
same  coarse  food  as  his  men,  often  contenting  himself  with  moldy 
hread  and  keeping  the  frost  out  of  his  tent  by  having  heated  can- 
non balls  rolled  along  the  f^oor.  In  the  meanwhile,  the  tsar,  who 
was  not  so  inexpert  as  Charles  wished  to  believe,  caused  the  coun- 
try through  which  the  Swedes  would  have  to  make  their  retreat 
to  be  laid  waste,  fortified  all  the  passes,  and  used  his  influence 
over  the  Cossack  chiefs  so  well  that  they  all  fell  away  from 
^lazeppa,  who  had  to  flee  from  his  own  revolted  soldiers  and  take 
refuge  in  the  Swedish  camp.  To  complete  the  misfortunes  of  the 
king,  Levenhaupt  was  met  and  overpowered  1)y  an  immense  army 
of  Russians  while  on  his  way  to  join  the  main  arm}',  and  although 
he  kept  u])  a  desperate  defense  for  two  days,  he  lost  all  his  baggage 
and  stores  and  more  than  half  of  his  men  and  reached  the  Swedish 
lines  with  a  battered  remnant  of  6000  men.  Hunger  and  disease 
subsequently  reduced  the  total  army  to  18,000  men. 

With  this  small  force  Charles  laid  siege  to  Poltava,  where  he 
hoped  to  find  the  food  and  clothing  of  which  he  stood  in  such  scH^e 
need.  The  tsar  and  his  minister,  ]\Ienshikov,  were,  however,  ad- 
vancing with  55,000  men  to  the  relief  of  the  place,  and  soon  the 
two  armies  lay  encamped  within  sight  (jf  each  other.  The  Swedes 
awaited  the  attack,  but  finding  that  the  tsar  would  not  venture 
the  first  move,  Charles  resolved  to  take  the  Russian  entrenchments 
by  assault.  Having  been  badly  wounded  in  the  foot  during  a  ])re- 
\ious  skirmish,  he  had  to  be  carried  into  battle  in  a  litter — a  dis- 
l)iriting  circumstance  considering  the  peculiar  (juality  of  Charles's 
military  talent,  which  com])rised  dash  of  leadershi]^  rather  than 
real  strategy.  Rut  as  if  this  were  not  enough,  Charles  himself  ag- 
gravated the  situation  by  setting  his  generals,  Levenhaupt  and 
Kehnskiold,  by  the  ears  by  reversing  their  ranks.  Thus,  after  their 
initial  charge  had  borne  the  Russians  before  it,  the  Swedes  became 
iiivcjlved  in  cr^ifusion  on  account  of  contradicting  (jrders,  after 
which  the  mere  numbers  of  the  enemy  sufficed  to  crush  them. 
l\chn>kio](l  was  sfxjii  taken  jjrisoner  and  a  great  part  of  his  division 
caj^tured.  Levenhaupt  held  out  for  a  few  days,  but  was  ultimately 
comjtcllcd  to  surrender  the  remnant  of  the  army.  Charles  him- 
self had  at  lir^t  thought  to  remain  loyally  with  his  men  atul  share 
tlieir  fate,  but  final!}-,  yielding  to  the  imi^ortunities  of  his  attendaiUs, 


GREAT     NORTHERN     WAR  221 

1709-1711 

allowed  himself  to  be  placed  in  a  litter  and  borne  over  the  steppes 
to  Bender,  in  Turkish  dominions. 

The  defeat  at  Poltava,  which  took  place  on  June  27,  1709. 
was  a  signal  to  all  the  enemies  of  Charles  to  take  up  arms  against 
his  prostrate  kingdom,  A  new  league  was  formed  between  Fred- 
erick of  Denmark  and  Augustus  of  Saxony,  who  were  backed  by 
the  power  of  Prussia  and  Russia;  and  before  the  close  of  1709 
Sweden  was  assailed  by  hostile  armies  on  all  her  frontiers.  The 
only  man  who  at  that  moment  displayed  both  the  will  and  the  skill 
to  defend  his  countr}'  was  General  ^Magnus  Stenbock,  who  had 
gone  to  the  Ukraine  with  the  king,  but  in  consequence  of  ill-hcaUii 
had  returned  to  Sweden,  where  he  held  tlic  post  of  governor  of 
Skaania.  By  his  indefatigable  activity  and  energy  he  contrived 
to  recruit  and  drill  15,000  peasant  lads,  who,  although  badly  armed 
and  clad  only  in  tattered  sheepskin  coats  or  coarse  woolen  jackets, 
proved  themselves  intrepid  soldiers  and  more  than  a  match  for  the 
well-equipped  and  veteran  regiments  which  Frederick  IV.  had 
thrown  into  Skaania,  and  which  met  presently  with  such  utter  dis- 
comfiture at  the  hands  of  the  "  ^Yooden  Slioes  "  that  only  half 
their  numbers  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Danish  ships  in  safetv. 

All  this  while  Charles,  who  was  still  at  l>ender.  was  trying  his 
hand  at  diplomacy  with  the  purpose  of  stirring  up  new  enemies 
against  the  tsar.  Peter,  by  his  evident  anxiety  to  secure  a  Black 
Sea  port  at  the  expense  of  the  Turks,  contributed  to  the  same  end, 
and,  in  the  year  1710,  Poniatowski,  Charles's  agent,  who  pos- 
sessed a  notable  ascendency  over  the  Sultan  Ahmed  III.,  was  able 
to  induce  the  latter  to  dispatch  an  arm}-,  under  the  Grand  Vizier 
Mohammed,  against  Peter.  Peter,  by  no  means  yet  a  master  of 
the  art  of  war.  was  soon  floundering  Iielpless  enough  in  tlie 
marshes  of  the  Pruth,  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  In's  foe.  Only 
the  intrepidity  of  Catherine.  fVter's  wife,  and  the  future  tsaritsa, 
who  in  the  last  desperate  moment  bribed  the  grand  vizier  with 
a  huge  quantity  of  jewels  and  gold,  all  that  she  could  scrape  to- 
gether in  the  Russian  camp.  sa\-c(l  tlic  Russian  army  from  a 
great  calamity.  As  it  was,  liowever,  the  vizier  consent cJ  to  an 
immediate  peace,  exacting  onl}-  the  restoration  of  Azow  ("liarles 
XII. 's  chagrin  was  boundless,  but  to  his  velicmeut  ])roU'-^  ^  his 
avaricious  and  treacherous  ally  was  al)le  lo  resjjond  that  "  noi 
all  princes  were  able  to  remain  permanently  away  from  ilicir 
dominions." 


^>22  S  C  A  \  D  I  X  A  V  I  A 

1711-1715 

The  position  of  the  Swedisli  kiiii;-  now  Ijecanic  g-alling  in  the 
extreme  both  to  himself  and  to  his  host.  11ie  snhan  Avishod  to  he 
rid  of  him,  and  gave  him  large  sums  of  money  wlierewith  to  settle 
his  accounts  and  make  the  necessary  preparations  to  depart,  but 
Charles  spent  the  money  in  other  ways  and  asked  for  more.  The 
sultan  then  ordered  his  arrest,  but  when  the  Turkish  officers  at- 
tempted to  take  him  he  barred  the  doors  of  his  house  at  \^-irnitz, 
and  shutting  himself  in  with  a  few  hundred  men,  defended  himself 
against  a  whole  army.  Many  Turks  were  shot  down  in  the  affraw 
but  the  house  having  been  fired,  Charles  was  seized  while  escaping 
from  the  flames  and,  after  a  desperate  struggle,  was  overpowered 
and  carried  by  main  force  to  a  village  near  Adrianople,  called  De- 
motica.  Here  he  remained  for  a  long  time  in  sullen  inactivity, 
closely  guarded  by  the  Turkish  janissaries,  who  called  him,  be- 
cause of  his  obstinacy,  "  Demiirbasch  "—the  Iron  Head.  For  ten 
months  he  remained  imprisoned  and  generally  in  bed  on  the  pre- 
tense that  he  was  dangerously  ill.  When  he  found  that  he  could 
obtain  no  further  aid  from  Turkey  he  resolved  upon  making  his 
escape.  Accompanied  b}'  only  two  persons  he  succeeded  in  the 
incredibly  short  time  of  fourteen  days  in  riding  from  Adrianople 
through  Hungary,  Austria,  and  Germany  to  the  Swedish  port  of 
Stralsund  in  Pomerania,  before  whose  gates  he  presented  himself 
on  November  7,  1714.  under  the  name  of  Captain  Peter  Frisch. 
The  guard  did  not  at  first  recognize  the  king,  for  he  had  not  once 
changed  his  clothes  and  had  scarceh'  left  his  saddle  night  or  day 
since  he  had  made  his  escape,  excepting  to  exchange  one  wearied 
horse  for  another  and  fresher  animal. 

While  Charles  had  been  shut  up  in  a  Turkish  prison  engaged 
in  frivolous  disputes  with  his  guards,  his  enemies  in  the  north  had 
been  dismembering  his  k'ingdom :  Russia  stri\-ing  to  secure  the 
whole  of  Swedish  Pomerania,  while  George  I.  of  luigland  had  as- 
sumed p(5Ssession  of  Bremen  and  Verden,  which  the  Danes  had 
seized  and  sold  to  him.  A  Danish  fleet  under  I'ordenskiold  was 
at  the  same  time  ravaging  the  Swedish  c'jasts.  while  an  allied  army 
of  Saxons  and  Danes  under  Frederick  William  \\as  investing 
StraFund.  Charles  signalized  his  return  by  taking  command  of 
the  bcleagured  garrison,  defending  the  i)lace  till  the  walls  were 
blown  up  and  the  outworks  reduced  to  ashes.  lie  then  crossed 
the  Faltic,  landing  safely  in  Skaania,  although  Torrlenskiold  was 
scouring  the  .-cas  to  ])re\ent  his  jjassage.     The  king  now  took  u]) 


GREAT     NORTHERN     WAR  223 

1715-1718 

his  abode  at  Lund,  both  because  he  ^vi^he(l  to  ]je  near  the  seat  of 
war.  and  also  because  he  did  not  care  to  return  to  his  capital  till 
he  had  retrieved  his  fortunes.  His  presence  in  the  country,  how- 
e^-er,  forced  the  nobles  to  refrain  from  any  further  attempts  to 
secure  peace,,  and  imparled  new  courage  to  the  lower  classes,  who. 
in  their  love  and  devotion  to  their  idolized  king,  were  readv  to  risk 
their  all  at  his  behest.  But  men  fit  for  service  w^ere  scarce  in  the 
land,  and  there  was  no  money.  Accordingly  Charles  proceeded  to 
impress  lads  of  fifteen  into  the  ranks,  while  his  minister.  Gortz. 
contrived  to  raise  funds  by  putting  th,e  coinage  on  a  copper  basis 
and  selling  to  foreigners  all  the  silver  taken  from  the  royal 
mines. 

During  the  severe  winter  of  1716.  the  Sound  being  frozen 
over.  Charles  determined  to  lead  an  army  into  Sjaelland  and  to 
invade  the  Danish  Islands,  but  a  thaw  intervening,  Denmark 
escaped.  He  now  directed  his  attack  against  Xorwav.  advancing 
upon  Christiania;  but  meeting  with  more  opposition  than  he  had 
calculated  upon,  he  fell  back  and  laid  siege  to  the  fortress  of 
Frederiksten.  near  Frederikshald.  Xo  better  success  awaited  him 
there,  however,  for  the  citizens  under  the  guidance  of  the  brothers 
Peder  and  Hans  Kolbjornsson.  setting  fire  to  their  town,  drove  the 
Swedes  out  of  their  quarters,  and  at  length  forced  them  to  give 
up  the  siege. 

At  this  moment  of  disaster  the  war  seemed  likely  to  take  on 
an  entirely  new  character.  I^'eter  the  Great,  dissatisfied  with  his 
allies  and  repulsed  in  his  attem])t  to  enter  into  an  arrangement 
witli  the  I-'rench  regency,  felt  that  he  could  best  secure  the  con- 
quests which  he  had  made  at  Charles  XH.'s  expense  by  assisting 
the  latter  against  his  other  foes.  .\t  the  moment  of  Charles's  re- 
newal of  tlie  in\-estment  of  Freclerik>hald.  with  an  army  of  30.000. 
his  minister,  Gortz,  who  had  already  entered  into  alliance  \villi 
Alberoni.  lilizabeth  Farnese's  minister  of  state,  was  scheming  with 
the  tsar  at  Aaland  a  hostile  combinatifjn  against  the  rest  of  norlh- 
ern  F.in-o])e.  All  tliese  plans  prm-ed  futile,  however,  when  on  the 
morning  of  Deceml)er  11.  \j\^.  Chai-les  XU.  was  struck  down  by 
a  cannon  shot  bebnx'  the  Swedish  trenches  at  h^-ederikshald.  The 
most  renowned  of  Scandinavian  kings  was  but  thirty-six  at  the 
moment  of  his  deaifi.  W  ith  him  perished  the  militar_\-  greatiie^^ 
of  his  kingdom  and  the  absolute  j)o\\fi-  of  die  .S\s'edish  nionareh}-, 
the  former  i>-i\ine'  \\'a\-  \i<  the  ri^ini?'  i/reatne^^  i^\   Prn>si,-i  an<l   \\\\^- 


224.  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1715-1718 

sia,  the  latter  to  the  anarchy  of  an  aristocratic  regime,  whose 
beneficiaries,  however,  designated  it  "  the  era  of  hberty." 

"  Almost  all  his  actions,"  says  Voltaire  of  Charles  XII.,  "  bor- 
der on  the  marvelous.  Perhaps  he  was  the  only  man,  most  cer- 
tainly the  only  king,  that  ever  lived  without  weaknesses.  He  car- 
ried all  the  virtues  of  the  hero  to  such  an  excess  as  rendered  them 
no  less  dangerous  than  the  opposite  vices.  His  resolution,  hard- 
ened into  obstinacy,  occasioned  his  misfortunes  in  the  Ukraine, 
and  detained  him  five  years  in  Turkey.  His  liberality,  degenerat- 
ing into  profusion,  ruined  Sweden,  His  courage,  pushed  to  the 
length  of  temerity,  was  the  cause  of  his  death:  and,  during  the 
last  years  of  his  reign,  the  means  he  employed  to  support  his  au- 
thority differ  little  from  tyranny.  His  great  qualities,  any  one 
of  which  would  have  been  sufficient  to  immortalize  another  prince, 
])roved  pernicious  to  his  country.  He  never  was  the  aggressor; 
but,  in  taking  vengeance  on  those  who  had  injured  him,  his  resent- 
ment got  the  better  of  his  prudence.  He  was  the  first  man  who 
ever  aspired  to  the  title  of  conqueror  without  the  least  desire  of 
enlarging  his  dominions.  .  ,  .  An  extraordinary,  rather  than 
a  great,  man,  and  more  worthy  to  be  admired  than  imitated," 

Yet  despite  the  disaster  that  Charles's  astounding  career 
si)clled  for  his  realm,  he  remains  to-day  the  best  loved  of  Swedish 
rulers,  and  his  era  is  still  barkened  back  to  as  Karoliuska  tidcn — 
Karl's  time.  His  remains  were  burierl  in  the  Riddarholmkirka, 
where  his  mortuary  chapel,  with  its  moldcring  trophies,  stands 
opposite  the  grave  of  his  great  predecessor  and  model  in  war, 
Gusta\us  Adolphus. 

In  more  than  one  respect  Charles  XII. 's  reign  meant  the  end 
of  the  "era  of  grandeur"  for  Sweden.  I^ven  at  the  beginning  of 
this  period  the  reserves  were  in  the  ranks;  vet  le\-y  succeeded  levy 
until  the  country  was  virtually  depleted  of  mature  men  and  agri- 
culture was  threatened  \vith  ruin.  The  continuance  of  war,  with 
the  license  which  the  laws  of  v/ar  at  that  d;iy  accorded  freebooters, 
confined  maritime  commerce  to  infrer|uent  anrl  j^recarious  ventures; 
in  con:-cqucnce  ensued  not  onlv  the  impoverisliment  of  the  coun- 
try, but  the  wreck-  of  tlie  roval  finances.  The  occu]iation  by  Russia 
of  the  l>altic  provinces  of  itself  cut  the  revenues  of  the  realm  in 
hall:  with  the  di-:>ap])earance  of  commerce  this  half  declined  to  a 
}-et  smaller  fraction,  a  jjrocess  which  addition:d  and  more  onerous 
irnyiosts  only  ha-tcnod.       I'lie   r. ''.-nl   ■.■•••..■'K-o;;ei"   -n'Tcctled.   however. 


G  R  E  A  1^     X  0  R  T  H  E  R  N     AV  A  R  ^>f>5 

1718-1720 

in  revenging  itself  completely  upon  the  nation  at  Iari;c  when  Gortz 
brought  the  coinage  to  a  copper  basis.  Industrial  recuperation 
seemed  impossible. 

At  the  moment  of  entering  upon  his  fatal  career,  as  he  was 
leaving  Sweden,  Charles  had  charged  the  Kniglits"  House — Rid- 
darhiiss — with  the  public  administration,  but,  in  excess  of  jeal- 
ousy for  his  absolute  prerogative,  bestowed  upon  this  body  only  a 
minimum  of  discretion  and  no  power  of  initiation.  His  imprison- 
ment at  Bender  was,  therefore,  of  nnore  than  ordinary  consequence 
from  a  governmental  standpoint.  The  outcome  of  the  exigencies 
of  the  situation  w\as  the  very  thing  that  Cliarles  had  thought  to 
guard  against:  for  the  Knights  were  fairly  compelled  to  assume 
and  exercise  the  prerogative.  The  Knights'  House  gave,  however, 
small  promise  of  remaining  the  residence  of  sovereigntv.  Charles's 
absence  was  making  the  question  of  the  succession  more  important 
every  day,  and  since  he  was  without  either  sons  or  brothers,  and 
there  was  therefore  no  legal  licir,  the  settlement  of  tins  question 
would  devolve  upon  the  diet.  It  is  true  that  Ch.arles  had  two  sis- 
ters, and  that  by  the  legislation  of  Charles  IX.  females  might  in- 
herit the  throne.  But  another  law  required  that  the  marriage  of 
an  heir  to  the  throne  must  be  made  only  with  the  consent  of  the 
diet,  a  requirement  with  which  both  Charles's  sisters.  Hedvig  Sofia 
and  Ulrica,  the  latter  the  wife  of  Frederick  of  Hesse,  had  failed 
to  comply.  The  diet  was,  therefore,  as  far  as  the  strict  letter  of 
the  law  went,  perfectly  free  to  choose  between  Ulrica  and  Hedvig 
Sofia's  heir,  Charles  Frederick  of  Holstein-Gottorp.  or,  perhaps, 
to  pass  them  both  by.  Charles's  necessities  upon  his  return,  the 
unpopularity  of  his  alien  minister,  Gortz,  and  finally  the  monarch's 
intestacy,  still  further  fortified  the  position  of  the  anti-monarchical 
aristocracy.  Ulrica  was  given  the  crown  January,  1719.  but  was 
compelled  to  consent  to  govern  "  according  to  the  will  of  the  diet." 
and  in  token  of  her  good  faith  to  acquiesce  in  the  execution  of 
Gortz  on  trumped-up  charges. 

The  act  of  ]\Iav  2.  1720,  is  the  landmark  that  sets  off  the  new 
regime.  In  February  Ulrica  had,  with  the  permission  of  the  diet, 
transferred  the  royal  power  to  her  husband,  who  thereupon  became 
Frederick  T.  of  Sweden.  By  the  act  in  question  the  new  king  with- 
drew all  claims  to  absolute  power — Komin^a  forsuknni — the  mon- 
archy was  made  elective  again,  and  the  supreme  authority  was,  m 
word,  conferred  upon  the  diet;  in  fact,  howexer,  it  jjassed  to  a  yet 


2526  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  1  A 

1720-1738 

more  oligarcliical,  though  less  unwieldy  body,  a  secret  commitice 
composed  of  fifty  nobles,  twenty-five  of  the  clergy  and  twenty-fi\c 
burq;liers.  tlic  fourth  estate  beins;-  entirely  ignored. 

^'et  the  defects  of  the  new  constitution  were  not  at  first  a])- 
parent.  Tliis  was  the  epoch  wlicn  the  idea  of  benevolent  mon- 
archy lield  sway  in  Europe:  the  time  when  the  pursuit  of  peace  and 
c(>mmcrcc  comprised  the  pcjlicy  of  natit)ns  wearied  by  a  half  century 
of  war.  In  England,  \\'alpole  was  the  great  peace  minister;  in 
Erance,  Elcury;  in  Sweden,  Arvid  Horn,  Charles  XII. 's  old  com- 
mander. Horn  began  his  chancellorsliip  by  establishing  friendly 
relations  with  Russia  and  giving  assurances  of  Sweden's  continued 
good-will  for  England.  The  Peace  of  Xystad.  between  Russia  and 
Sweden — 1721 — terminated  a  series  of  treaties  wherein  are  em- 
b(j(Iied  the  final  results  of  Charles  XII. 's  wars.  Hanover  became 
the  possessor  of  Bremen  and  V^erden  :  Prussia  obtained  the  eastern 
half  of  Swedish  Pomerania.  with  the  islands  of  Rygen  and  Usedom 
and  the  towns  of  Stettin  and  Dantzig ;  Erederick  of  Denmark  was 
permitted  to  sever  Slesvig  from  the  holdings  of  Charles  XU.'s  ;dly, 
the  Duke  of  Holstein.  and  to  incorporate  it  with  Denmark;  Augus- 
tus of  Saxony  again  became  king  of  Poland ;  and,  most  important 
of  all,  Russia  obtained  Tngermannland.  Esthonia.  Eivonia.  and 
Karelia,  and  subsequently,  in  1729,  \^iborg  also.  The  worst  fears 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus  had  been  realized:  Russia  had  become  the 
leading  Baltic  power  and  a  standing  menace  to  the  independence 
of  Sweden. 

In  return  for  these  sacrifices  abroad,  Sweden  saw  her  trade 
expanded  under  the  benevolent  patronage  of  the  government ;  i;i- 
du^>try  reorganized;  skilled  foreign  workmen  encouraged  to  settle  in 
tlie  Country;  new  agricultural  products  introduced,  most  important 
of  which  was  the  ]ir)tato — that  antidote  of  famine;  the  lav/s  codi- 
fied: administration  systematized;  and  taxation  lightened.  I'or- 
tunaie  Jiad  it  been  for  Sweden  had  the  course  of  events  been 
allovcd  to  continue  in  the  cliannel  devised  by  Horn  and  his  fol- 
lowers, tlie  Na!i;i!ossc}',  the  "  Xight  Caps."  .Such  was  not  to  be 
the  ca-e.  Iiowex'er.  Op])cjsed  t(_)  Horn's  cautious  policy  of  ])cace  ai^d 
internal  develo])ment  was  the  remnant  of  the  faction  of  tlie  diet 
winch  had  un.^uccessfully  espoused  lled\-ig  Sofia's  claims  to  the 
throne.  V>y  \~_'^,^  \]]\<  faction  had  become  a  pf'Werfu.l  ]iarty.  the 
llatlttr,  the  "llal-.""  under  the  leadership  i>i  Count  <^ivllenborg. 
'1  he  languaL'.e   \\-x^\  by   the   Hats  was  that  of  denunciati(jn   of  the 


GREAT     NORTHERN     WAR  ^>27 

1738-1741 

Peace  of  Nystad,  of  reminiscence  of  Sweden's  departed  j^randeur. 
of  gratitude  to  France.  Its  real  motive  was  greed  for  more  French 
gold,  of  which  its  members'  pockets  were  already  full.  The  meet- 
ing of  the  diet  of  1738  turned  out  to  be  a  remarkable  event.  From 
1736  a  war  had  been  going  on  between  Turkey,  on  the  one  side, 
and  Russia  and  i\ustria  on  the  other.  A  considerable,  if  not  the 
complete,  dismemberment  of  the  Ottoman  empire  was  presaged. 
This,  however,  would  have  been  entirely  to  the  detriment  of 
France,  whose  faithful  bulwark  against  the  empire  the  infidel  had 
been  since  the  day  when  Francis  L  shocked  Christian  Furope  by 
appearing  in  alliance  with  Suleiman  the  ^Magnificent,  and  whose 
practical  monopoly  of  the  rich  commerce  of  the  Levant  rested  upon 
Turkish  concessions.  To  Fleury,  therefore,  who  was  still  bent 
upon  keeping  France  out  of  war,  occurred  the  brilliant  idea  of 
fighting  the  battles  of  the  most  Christian  monarch  "  bv  procura- 
tion." The  members  of  the  Swedish  diet  proved  most  responsi\e 
to  the  efforts  of  Saint-Severin,  the  French  ambassador  at  Stock- 
holm. Of  the  700  members  of  that  body,  only  100  rejected  the 
bribes  offered  them.'"'  The  coup  d'etat  thus  brought  about  was  com- 
plete. Horn  gave  way  to  Gyllenborg,  who  became  chancellor. 
The  Night  Caps  were  excluded  from  the  secret  committee.  Sweden 
entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  France,  whereby  the  latter  was  to 
pay  the  former  an  annual  sum  of  300,000  crowns  for  the  rehabilita- 
tion of  the  Swedish  army  and  navy. 

Sweden  was  now  but  the  pawn  of  i'rancc  on  the  international 
chessboard.  France's  next  step  was  to  bring  about  a  rapprocJic- 
mcnt  between  Sweden  and  Turkey.  IMajur  Malcolm  Sinclair  un- 
dertook the  mission  to  Constantinople,  but  while  on  his  way  thither 
was  murdered,  presumably  at  the  instigation  of  the  tsaritsa's  gov- 
ernment. At  the  same  moment  (T739)  tlie  Peace  of  Belgrade 
brought  the  Russo-l'urkish  war  to  a  close  in  a  manner  most  dis- 
appointing to  the  Russians,  but  it  freed  Russia's  hands  to  seek  com- 
pensation at  tlie  expense  of  Sweden.  ^Moreover,  llic  War  of  the 
Austrian  Succession,  breaking  out  in  1740.  with  l-'rederick  the 
(ireat's  invasion  of  Silesia,  iM-ancc  was  confronted  with  a  great 
temptation  to  expand  at  tlie  ex])cnse  of  the  1  lapsljurgs,  Fleury's 
policy  went  by  the  board,  and  Louis  X\'.,  entering  into  the  Treaty 
of  Nymphenberg  (Alay,  1741  )  for  tlie  dismembernicnt  of  Austria, 
was  quite  willing  to  sacrifice  Sweden  to  Russia  foi-  tlie  nonce,  so 
lenig  as  the  latter  were  kc])t  <  erupied.  The  Swedish  fnree^,  lakin,-" 
•'•  Anlim-    Iln--nll:    '•  Tin-    r.;!laiuT    ..i     I'.nsvr."    p.    ij|       (i.^-K).) 


228  SCANDINAVIA 

1741-1764 

the  initiative,  met  with  swift  disaster.  The  occupation  of  Finland 
by  the  Russians  was  followed  by  a  terrible  defeat  of  the  Swedes  at 
Vilnianstrand,  and  by  the  capitulation  of  the  Swedish  army  at 
rielsing-fors.  To  appease  the  exasperated  nation,  the  cowardly 
Hat  government  consented  to  the  execution  of  Levenhaupt  and 
Buddenbrock.  ATeanwhile  French  diplomacy  at  St.  Petersburg 
had  brought  the  Princess  Elizabeth  to  the  throne  and  had  made 
Bestuzhev  her  minister  of  state.  A  negotiation  between  Sweden 
and  Russia  was  begun  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1742,  through  the 
pretended  mediation  of  Chetardie,  the  French  ambassador.  In 
l)oint  of  fact,  Chetardie  was  doing  his  utmost  to  discourage  Russian 
demands  and  to  confront  the  tsaritsa's  government  with  a  close 
alliance  composed  of  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Turkey.  These  in- 
trigues were  revealed  to  Bestuzhev  when  a  letter  from  the  French 
envoy  at  Constantinople  to  Chetardie  fell  into  his  hands.  Che- 
tardie was  forced  to  leave  St.  Petersburg;  the  Russian  attack  upon 
Sweden  was  renewed ;  the  domination  of  the  Flats  was  brought 
to  a  close;  and,  by  the  humiliating  Treaty  of  Abo — 1743 — Sweden 
purchased  her  independence  by  surrendering'  eastern  h'inland,  to 
the  Kiumen  River,  to  Russia ;  by  guaranteeing  the  succession  to 
the  Swedish  throne  to  Adolph  l^^redcrick  of  TTolstein-Ciottorj-) ;  and 
by  accepting-  the  temporary  protection  of  a  Russian  army  against 
I  )anish  invasion. 

The  period  of  Adolph  Frederick's  reign,  1751-1771.  may  be 
briefly  characterized  as  one  of  further  decline  of  the  royal  jiower. 
The  king-  was  the  mere  puppet  of  the  council  and  the  nobles:  the 
regal  office  existed  only  in  name.  An  attempt  of  the  patriotic  Ih^rn 
and  ('(Auit  Brahe  to  bolster  the  throne,  in  1756,  brought  these 
leaders  In  the  scaffold  and  exposed  the  king  and  his  queen.  Fouisa 
Flrik-a  of  I'russia.  to  still  other  humiliations.  The  council,  again 
in  llic  leash  of  I'rcnch  gold,  drew  Sweden  into  the  Seven  ^'ears* 
War  against  h^rederick  the  Great.  Sweden  was  promised  P(Mne- 
rania,  but  the  Peace  of  Hamburg-  between  Prussia  and  Sweden 
(May.  17^)-')  was  based  on  the  sfaliis  quo  ante  bclluin.  Indeed, 
so  contempt i!)]e  a  part  did  Swedish  arms  play  in  the  great  strug- 
gle that  kredcrick  the  Great  sarcastically  o1)served,  when  called 
\\\)on  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Hamburg,  that  "  he  was  not  aware  that 
he  had  been  at  war  with  Sweden."  The  Hats  now  gave  way  to  the 
Xight  Cajis,  ruid,  in  I7f')4,  I'^rance.  who,  between  the  years 
1 7  V'^    ;ind    IT'"'!,    IkkI    ^Mibsidizcd    Sweden    to    IJit'    anionni    iif    qn.- 


GREAT     NORTHERN     WAR  2!^y 

1764-1771 

cx)0,ooo  livres, ''  discontinued  these  aids.  By  way  of  retort  the 
Swedish  diet,  which  came  to  a  close  October  ii,  1766.  passed 
a  resolution  forbidding-  the  king-  to  listen  to  any  proposition  look- 
ing to  a  reestablishment  of  the  system  of  union  between  France 
and  Sweden^  Choiseul,  Louis  XVI/s  minister,  now  devised  a 
"  new  system."  The  flagging  spirits  of  the  Patrioirs  Chapcaux 
were  to  be  revived  by  the  same  methods  by  which  the  party  had 
been  created.  This  was  necessary,  since  the  Bonnets  were  in  the 
pay  of  England  and  Russia.  Moreover — and  this  was  the  innova- 
tion— the  newly  created  patriotism  was  to  be  utilized  in  a  coup 
d'etat  restoring  the  power  of  the  king.  Sweden,  it  w\as  obvious, 
could  never  become  any  considerable  make-weight  in  the  European 
balance  of  power  as  long  as  her  government  was  the  sport  of 
factions.  In  1771  Vergennes  came  to  Stockholm  to  carry  through 
the  new  programme.     The  same  year  Adolph  Frederick  died. 

^'Flassan:  "  Histoire  raisonncc  dc  la  diplomatic  francaise,"  vol.  VI,  p.  57O. 
'  Loc.  cit.,  p.  580. 


Chapter   XVIII 

BENEVOLENT  DESPOTISM   IN  DENMARK, 

1648-1771 

THE  Denmark  contemporary  with  successors  of  Gustavus 
Adolphns  presented  little  or  nothing  to  excite  the  wonder 
or  admiration  of  foreign  nations.  In  proportion  as 
Sweden  monoi)olized  the  attention  of  Iiurope  and  made  the  great 
powers  value  her  alliance,  Denmark  had  continued  to  fall  away 
from  her  former  reputation.  Internally  there  was  a  similar  de- 
cline, for  when  her  Christian  IV.  died,  in  164S.  baftled  by  the 
nobles  in  all  his  efforts  to  benefit  his  kingdom,  and  crushed  under 
the  weight  of  their  tyranny,  it  seemed  as  if  Denmark  must  inevi- 
tably sink  into  the  condition  of  an  oligarchy,  and  that  monarchy 
should  cease  to  ha\-e  even  a  nominal  existence  in  that  kingdom. 

Some  months  elapsed  after  the  death  of  Christian  TV.  before 
the  council  would  formally  elect  his  son  Frederick  to  the  throne. 
Only  at  the  close  of  the  year  did  the  nobles  offer  to  ])roclaim  him 
king  of  Denmark,  on  condition  that  he  sign  the  charter  which  they 
submitted.  The  terms  which  they  imposed  were  harder  than  any 
ever  before  imposed  upon  a  candidate  for  the  Danish  throne,  but 
Frederick,  seeing  no  present  way  of  escape,  agreed  to  them,  and  thus 
found  himself  a  mere  puppet  in  the  hands  of  his  council,  without 
whose  consent  he  could  not  leave  the  countr}',  make  peace  or  war, 
or  exercise  any  administrative  function  of  importance.  While 
Frederick  and  his  ambitious  queen.  Sofia  Amalia,  were  thus  re- 
duced to  figureheads  in  the  state,  the  Idfclds.  by  their  wealth  and 
])ower,  were  able  to  eclipse  the  court  both  in  the  magnificence  of 
their  entertainments  and  in  the  number  of  their  attendants.  These 
circumstances  it  was,  as  well  as  tlie  beauty,  wit,  and  accomplish- 
ments of  bJeanor  Kristine  Ulfeid.  the  king's  sister,  which,  by 
arousing  the  jealousy  of  the  queen,  made  her  determined  not  to 
rest  lill  she  had  procured  the  downfall  of  these  hruighty  rivals  of 
her  f>\vn  royrdly.  I'lt'cld's  conduct  in  negotiating  the  |)eace  with 
I  [ojland.  by  wliicli  the  Dutch  were  allowed  to  escape  the  Sound 
dues  on   the  payment  of  a  sum  of  mone\'.  and   his  adniiiiistratinii 

I'M) 


U  E  N  E  VOLE  N  T     D  E  ^  V  C)  T  I  S  M  231 

1659-1660 

of  the  finances  under  the  late  king,  afforded  the  queen  her  oppor- 
tunity. The  unfortunate  noble,  feeling-  it  indiscreet  to  await  the 
formahties  of  a  trial,  fled,  with  his  family,  from  Copenhagen  by 
night,  and  after  wandering  extensively  in  Holland  and  elsewhere, 
went  finally  to  Sweden,  where,  as  we  have  seen,  he  became  an 
insistent  and  vindictive  counselor  of  war  upon  his  native  land. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  conceive  a  more  hopeless  position 
than  the  one  in  which  King  Frederick  III.  of  Denmark  found  him- 
self, in  1660,  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  Sweden,  an  account  of 
which  was  given  in  a  previous  chapter.  The  kingdom  was  laid 
waste,  the  treasury  was  empty,  and  the  monarchy  on  its  last  legs, 
when  King  Frederick,  in  his  great  need,  called  together  a  meeting 
of  the  estates  in  Copenhagen,  and  laid  before  them  a  true  account 
of  his  necessities.  The  nobles,  as  usual,  tried  to  shift  all  responsi- 
bility from  themselves  to  the  other  orders  of  the  state,  and  ap- 
pealed to  their  special  privileges  of  exemption  from  taxation.  This 
unworthy  conduct  roused  the  anger  of  the  burghers,  who  were 
alive  to  the  fact  that  it  was  owing  to  them  alone  that  the  king- 
dom had  not  been  subjugated  by  the  Swedish  king  in  the  late  war. 
Accordingly,  when  the  nobles  refused  to  contribute  anything 
toward  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  siege,  the  town  council  of 
Copenhagen,  headed  by  the  burgomaster,  Hans  Nansen,  made  an 
appeal  to  the  king  for  a  curtailment  of  the  privileges  of  the  nobles. 
The  clergy  under  the  guidance  of  the  learned  and  ambitious  court 
preacher,  Bishop  Svane.  seconded  their  proposals,  and  joined  with 
them  in  a  demand  for  an  inquiry  into  the  terms  u])on  which  the 
crown  fiefs  were  held,  with  the  ultimate  intention  of  having  tenures 
held  gratuitously  canceled  and  disposed  of  to  the  higliest  bidder, 
without  regard  to  rank.  \\'hile  these  proceedings  were  taking 
])lace  within  the  hall  of  assembly,  the  gates  ni  tlic  city  were  closed 
by  order  of  Hans  Xansen.  and  a  strong  civic  guard  drawn  around 
the  doors  of  the  building.  The  nobles,  taken  by  surprise,  and  find- 
ing that  several  influential  members  of  their  (nvn  body  had  gone 
over  to  the  side  of  the  burghers,  receded  from  their  refusal  to  ])ay 
the  taxes.  When,  however,  Xansen  and  Svane  next  pro])0';ed  to 
make  the  crown  hereditary  in  the  descendants  of  the  king,  whether 
male  or  female,  they  opposed  the  motion  with  bitter  cxj^rcssions 
of  dissent.  This  important  measure  was  nevertheless  p.assed  bv 
the  burghers  and  clergy  at  another  meeting  of  the  diet,  held  on 
October  8,  and  when  the  nobles  still  withheld  their  assent,  tliey 


UM  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1660-1665 

were  informed  that  every  door  of  exit  was  held  by  troops  and  that 
the  whole  of  the  city  guard  was  ready  to  rush  to  arms  on  the  first 
sound  of  the  alarm  bell.  Under  these  circumstances  the  nobles 
found  themselves  forced  to  submit,  and  on  October  i8,  1660,  Fred- 
erick III.  received  the  homage  of  the  several  orders  of  the  state 
as  hereditary  king  of  Denmark. 

Frederick  III.  w'as  a  silent,  cautious  man,  who  knew  how 
to  keep  his  ow^n  counsel,  and  while  he  appeared  to  be  wholly  igno- 
rant of,  and  indifferent  to,  all  that  was  being  done  by  his  partisans, 
Svane  and  Nansen,  he  had  in  fact  cooperated  with  them  from  the 
first  through  his  secretary,  Gabel ;  and  when  he  once  found  himself 
master  of  his  kingdom,  he  rtsented  the  slightest  attempt  to  circum- 
scribe his  powers.  Gabel  had  had  the  finesse  to  propose  that  the 
question  of  the  form  of  government  which  the  king  ought  to  ob- 
serve under  the  changed  condition  of  the  monarchy  should  be  left 
for  discussion  till  the  next  meeting  of  the  diet.  This  proposal 
being  agreed  to,  Frederick  took  care  to  prevent  all  future  opposi- 
tion by  bribery  or  force.  Thus  he  commanded  tlie  university  rep- 
resentative. Professor  Villum  Lange,  to  absent  himself  from  the 
assembly,  as  he  had  been  known  to  express  the  opinion  that  Den- 
mark, like  all  other  civilized  monarchies,  ought  to  have  a  written 
constitution  of  its  own.  At  the  same  time  the  queen  and  court 
party  labored  assiduously  to  put  down  all  opposition,  and  the  re- 
sult of  their  combined  efforts  was  to  secure  a  large  number  of 
signatures  among  the  nobles,  clergy,  and  burghers  of  the  different 
j)rovinces  to  a  charter  which  proclaimed  the  absolute  independence 
of  the  hereditary  sovereignty  settled  upon  the  king  and  his  heirs. 
Thus,  by  a  swift  and  bloodless  revolution,  the  fundamental  princi- 
])le  of  the  Danish  kingship  was  entirely  transformed  and  one  of  the 
most  strictly  bound  elective  monarchies  in  the  world  was  converted 
into  tlie  most  absolute  hereditary  state  in  Christendom. 

With  I'Tederick  III.'s  acquisition  of  independent  ])ower  a  new 
system  of  administration  was  introduced  into  Denmark,  the  coun- 
cil of  state  giving  way  to  six  "  colleges  "  or  oflkes  for  tlie  transac- 
tion f)f  home  and  foreign  affairs.  These  changes  and  all  the  im- 
l)ro\emcnts  mrulc  in  tlie  conduct  of  the  universities  and  of  military 
and  naval  affairs  rmd  finance,  were  mainly  flue  to  the  able  counsels 
i>f  the  king's  secretary,  Peder  Schumacher  (Count  Griffenfeld),  a 
man  of  huniblc  origin,  who  by  his  talents  raised  himself  to  the  posi- 
ti(*n  of  most  powerful  minister  of  the  crown,  both  under  Frederick 


BENEVOLENT     DESPOTISM  233 

1665-1670 

and  his  son,  Christian  V.  After  being-  created  a  count  of  the  em- 
pire, and  receiving  every  mark  of  confidence  and  distinction  in  the 
power  of  the  king  to  bestow  upon  him,  the  jealousy  of  his  many 
enemies  at  court  brought  about  his  ruin.  Being  accused  of  treason, 
he  was  condemned  to  death,  but  the  sentence  was  commuted  at  the 
scaffold  to  close  imprisonment  for  life,  and  for  eighteen  years 
Count  Griffenfeld  was  kept  in  confinement,  being  liberated  only  the 
year  before  his  death  in  1699;  yet  Denmark  never  had  a  greater 
nu'nister  nor  one  who  met  more  unworthy  returns  from  all  the 
benefits  he  conferred  upon  his  country. 

Frederick  used  the  extraordinary  powers  of  which  he  became 
so  suddenly  possessed  with  great  moderation,  for  the  most  part. 
The  few  acts  of  cruelty  that  mar  his  reign  seem  to  have  been 
instigated  by  his  vindictive  queen.  At  one  point,  however,  his 
policy  was  seriously  defective :  he  paid  small  heed  to  the  genuine 
grievances  of  his  peasantry.  Their  frequent  appeals  for  a  mitiga- 
tion of  the  heavy  burdens  and  forced  ser\'ices  by  which  they  were 
oppressed  met  with  no  consideration  whatever  from  the  king.  Tlie 
power  of  the  nobles  over  this  class  had  not  been  interfered  with 
when  they  lost  many  of  their  long-established  prerogatives,  and 
so  completely  were  they  in  the  power  of  their  masters  that,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Danish  game  laws,  the  lord  of  the  manor  might 
still  put  out  the  eyes  of  the  peasant  who  shot  a  deer  on  his  lands. 
or  might  even  hang  him.  In  Norway  the  peasantry  never  sank  to 
so  low  a  condition  as  in  Denmark,  although  after  the  final  union  of 
the  two  kingdoms,  when  Danish  nobles  began  to  obtain  fiefs  and 
secure  a  footing  in  the  country,  the  subjects  of  this  ancient  mon- 
archy lost  many  of  their  rights  under  the  careless  rule  of  their 
Danish  kings. 

Christian  V.,  who  succeeded  his  father,  Frederick  III.,  in 
1670,  was  the  first  king  to  mount  tlie  Danish  thrcMic  without  having 
to  agree  to  some  compact  or  other  derogatory  to  liis  authority. 
Christian's  first  thought  after  his  accession  was  to  create  a  l)ril]iant 
court  after  the  fashion  of  that  of  "  Ic  Grand  Monavquc."  But 
many  of  the  heads  of  the  noblest  families  in  Denmark  had  with- 
drawn themselves  from  the  capital,  wliere  tliey  no  longer  exercised 
the  influence  which  they  had  enjoyed  in  former  times,  and  were 
endeavoring  to  show  their  indifi'erence  to  the  court  by  remaining 
on  their  own  lands.  The  young  king  resolved,  therefore,  to  create 
a  new  order  of  nobih"t\',  nnjre  brllli;int  an<1  disiingni^iifd  tlian  the 


2in  SCANDINAVIA 

1670-1679 

old.  Previous  to  this  time  hereditary  titles  were  unknown  among  the 
Danish  nobihty.  but  Christian  \\.  whi)  was  thoreuighly  German  in 
all  his  feelings,  now,  by  one  absolute  decree,  established  all  the  titles 
and  grades  of  rank  recognized  among  the  higher  classes  of  Ger- 
many; and  soon  his  court  was  filled  with  counts  and  barons,  wdio, 
on  the  payment  of  certain  fees,  had  obtained  with  tlie  newly 
adopted  rank  many  seignorial  rights  which  had  never  been  exer- 
cised by  the  older  nobles  of  Denmark.  The  latter  now  saw  them- 
selves supplanted  at  court,  and  in  the  service  of  the  state,  by  a 
band  of  German  adventurers,  who  had  procured  their  dignit}-  by 
money  and  not  birth.  All  the  ceremonials  and  rigid  etiquette  of 
\'crsailles  were  adopted  by  the  Danish  king,  and,  to  complete  his 
new  system  of  courtly  favor,  two  orders  of  knighthood  were  estab- 
lished known  as  the  Dannebrog  and  the  Elephant,  in  the  former 
I  if  which  a  white  ribbon  was  u-cd  and  in  the  latter  a  blue  one. 

The  expenses  of  the  court  rose  far  ab()\"e  any  hitherto  known 
in  Denmark.  In  fact  it  was  the  difficulty  of  finding  money  to 
gratify  his  love  of  dis]ilay  rmd  the  unpalatable  a(h"ice  which  Grif- 
fcnfeld  ga\'e  Christian,  in  regard  to  the  necessity  for  retrenchment, 
that  first  brought  that  minister  into  disfa\-or  with  his  sovereign. 
His  counsel  that  Christian  should  remain  neutral  in  the  war  which 
had  broken  out,  in  1^)75.  between  France  .and  Tlolland,  irritated 
the  young  kin.g  still  more.  who.  thirsting  for  distinction,  rushed  into 
the  conllict  and  took  up  arms  with  the  emperor  and  Elector  of 
Tirandenburg  against  Louis  XI\".  Hv  this  .alliance  Denmark  was 
brruight  intc)  hostilities  with  Sweden,  which  was  tlic  staunch  .ally 
of  l''rance,  and  soon  the  province  of  Sk.a.ani.a  became  the  scene  of 
wrir.  'fhe  two  young  northern  kings.  Christi.an  of  Denmark  .and 
Charles  XI.  of  Sweden,  commanded  in  jK-r-ou  wjicn  their  armies 
met  .at  Lund  in  1676.     Christian  w.as  unable  to  -secure  a  footh 


OKI 


ii'V  iliough  success  generally  attended  the  Dani>h  tlcet,  as  Griffen- 
frli\  had  foreseen.  Denmark  could  effect  nothing  against  the  ally  of 
IVance.  Fn  1679,  when  Louis  XI\^.  had  concluded  secret  treaties 
w  ith  the  emperrjr  and  with  Holland  and  Brandenburg,  there  was  no 
a]'trnati\e  for  Christian  l)ut  to  accede  to  the  peace  prop^iscd  h}-  tlie 
Irench  king  by  which,  all  that  had  l)cen  taken  by  Denmark  fr"in 
Sweden  had  to  be  restored  to  the  Latter  power.  Denmark,  there- 
lore,  gained  nothing  by  this  costlv  war,  except  military  experii-nee 
and  tlie  perfecticHi  (;f  her  ,armv  and  navv. 

As  soon  as  peace  was  concluded  with  l''r.ancc,  the  finance  nun- 


B  E  X  E  V  O  L  E  X  'V     1)  E  S  T  0  T  T  S  Af  235 

1679 -1699 

ister,  Sigfrid  von  Pless,  hired  some  of  the  troops  to  the  Enghsh 
king  to  be  used  against  the  Irish,  and  others  to  the  emperor  for 
his  wars  against  the  Turks.  But  this  short-sighted  pohcy,  while  it 
drained  the  country  of  some  of  her  best  men — for  only  a  small 
number  returned  to  their  homes — brought  meager  returns  to  the 
depleted  treasury.  On  the  death  of  the  king,  in  1699,  the  state 
was  found  to  be  hampered  with  a  debt  of  more  than  one  million 
rix  dollars,  notwithstanding  the  flourishing  condition  of  trade. 

During  this  reign  the  eminent  Danish  astronomer,  Ole 
(Olaus)  Romer,  did  good  service  to  his  country  by  the  improve- 
ments which  he  was  able  to  institute  in  the  coinage  and  in  the 
regulation  of  the  weights  and  measures,  by  repairing  the  public 
roads  and  the  planting  of  mile  posts  and  sign  posts.  While  hold- 
ing the  place  of  chief  of  the  police  department  of  Copenhagen  he 
also  organized  an  excellent  system  of  lighting  the  streets,  estab- 
lished an  efficient  nightwatch  and  a  fire  brigade,  and  furnished 
plans  for  the  construction  of  better  fire  engines  than  any  that  had 
yet  been  in  use.  He  was  at  a  later  period  named  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  and  an  assessor  of  the  supreme  court  of  justice, 
and  was  engaged  for  seven  years  in  compiling  a  great  land  book, 
in  which  all  land  was  assessed,  in  1684,  on  the  basis  of  a  certain 
mode  of  measurement  known  as  Hartkorn  Standard.  The  bigotry 
of  the  king  and  of  the  court  clergy  was  the  means  of  depriving 
Denmark  of  the  labors  of  many  thousands  of  Huguenots,  who, 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Xantes,  in  1685,  petitioned  for 
leave  to  settle  in  the  country.  This  was  sternly  refused,  and  hence 
these  industrious  men  carried  their  skill  to  other  lands,  where  no 
obstacles  stood  in  the  way  of  a  profession  of  tlie  doctrines  of 
Calvin.  The  condition  of  the  peasants  was  made  sf)  much  worse 
by  the  creation  of  the  numerous  countships  anil  l)aronies  of  the  new 
system  of  nobility,  which  gave  the  holders  full  power  over  llie 
serfs  upon  their  lands,  that  many  of  the  younger  men  left  the 
country.  At  length  a  law  was  passed  decreeing  that  all  bondar 
who  did  not  marry  and  remain  settled  on  the  estate  to  which  they 
belonged  should  be  enrolled  as  soldiers,  while  any  peasant  who  left 
his  master's  service  without  leave  might  be  sent  to  the  hulks  to 
work  in  irons  for  a  year.  The  consequence  of  these  cruel  meas- 
ures was  that  the  poor  fell  into  a  state  of  dependence  scarcely 
better  than  slavery,  while  the  land  was  only  half  cultivated,  rnul 
the  owners  became  im[)overished. 


^36  SCAN  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1699-1721 

On  the  death  of  Christian  V.,  in  1G99,  after  a  reign  of  nearly 
thirty  years,  his  eldest  son  was  proclaimed  king-  under  the  title  of 
Frederick  IV.  This  prince,  who,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life, 
showed  great  capacity  for  ruling  and  considerable  practical  knowl- 
edge of  all  the  details  of  government,  had  been  so  neglected  by  his 
father  in  his  childhood  and  youth  that  he  had  not  even  been  taught 
to  spell  or  to  express  himself  correctly,  and  had  never  been  per- 
mitted to  take  any  part  in  public  affairs  until  within  a  few  days 
of  Christian's  death,  when  the  old  king,  either  because  he  was  too 
feeble  to  resist,  or  because  he  repented  of  his  unworthy  conduct 
to  his  son,  now  twenty-eight  years  of  age,  summoned  him  for  the 
first  time  to  take  his  place  at  the  council  board. 

Frederick's  first  measure  after  his  coronation  was  to  plunge 
the  kingdom  into  an  unnecessary  war  with  Sweden  by  pouncing 
upon  the  territories  of  Duke  Frederick  IV.  of  Gottorp,  the  near 
kinsman  and  close  ally  of  the  young  Swedish  king,  Charles  XII. 
The  Danish  king  had  been  deluded  by  the  youth  and  inexperience 
of  his  cousin,  but  he  was  soon  undeceived.  In  his  treaty  of  peace 
with  his  namesake  Frederick  insured  the  latter  hereditary  sov- 
ereignty over  his  duchy.  The  final  status  of  Holstein-Gottorp  was 
not  yet  settled  permanently,  however.  In  1702  Duke  Frederick 
IV.  died.  Count  Gortz,  one  of  the  members  of  the  council  of 
regency,  together  with  the  widowed  ducliess,  Hedvig  Sofia,  sister 
of  Charles  XII.,  ruled  the  state  during  the  minority  of  the  young 
duke,  Charles  Frederick,  Gortz,  who  afterward,  as  prime  minister 
of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  did  all  in  his  power  to  bring  about  the 
ruin  of  the  Danish  monarchy,  was  resolved  upon  separating  the 
province  entirely  from  Denmark.  He  roused  the  anger  of  King 
I'^rederick  by  causing  certain  public  notices,  which  referred  to  the 
joint  government  of  the  king  and  the  young  duke,  to  be  issued  in 
the  name  of  the  latter  only.  Later  he  had  the  duke's  name  printed 
in  the  same  type  as  the  king's  instead  of  having  the  royal  signa- 
ttire,  as  was  usual  in  such  cases,  struck  off  in  larger  letters.  This 
frivolous  dispute,  known  as  the  "  type  quarrel,"  gave  rise  to  more 
serious  disagreements  and  led  in  1721  to  the  entire  overrunning  of 
the  duchy  of  IIolstein-Gottorp  by  the  Danish  forces.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Nystad,  of  that  same  year,  Slesvig  was  parted  from 
Holstein  and  reunited  to  the  Danish  crown  lands,  from  w^hich  it 
had  been  sep;iratcd  since  1386,  the  time  of  Margaret  of  Pomerania. 

The  internal  rule  of  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  was  marked 


BENEVOLENT     DESPOTISM  ^37 

1710-1723 

by  industry,  common  sense,  and  moral  rectitude  in  striking  con- 
trast to  that  of  his  father.  By  his  careful  economy  in  his  court 
and  in  the  various  departments  of  the  government,  Frederick  suc- 
ceeded, notwithstanding  the  cost  of  the  long  war  with  Sweden  and 
the  extravagant  tastes  of  his  queen,  Louisa  of  INIecklenburg,  who 
prompted  the  erection  of  magnificent  palaces,  both  at  Fredericks- 
borg  and  Fredensborg,  in  reducing  to  a  small  sum  the  national 
debt  left  behind  by  Christian  V.  Besides,  tlie  reign  of  Frederick 
was  visited  by  several  public  calamities,  which  called  for  the  prompt 
and  liberal  aid  of  the  state.  In  1710  a  frightful  pestilence  cut  off 
25,000  people  in  Copenhagen  alone,  and,  in  1728,  a  destructive 
fire  laid  waste  two-thirds  of  the  city,  costing  the  lives  of  many  of 
the  citizens  and  reducing  to  ashes  many  of  the  principal  buildings, 
among  others  the  magnificent  University  Library,  with  most  of 
its  rich  stores  of  oriental  manuscripts  and  other  valuable  works. 
In  1 717  an  inundation  destroyed  large  tracts  of  the  rich  pasture 
lands  of  the  Ditmarshers.  In  all  these  nationl  misfortunes  l-'red- 
erick  evinced  the  greatest  liberality  toward  the  sufferers  and  took 
means  to  relieve  their  distress  to  the  utmost  of  his  power.  1  Ved- 
erick  was  also  the  first  sovereign  wlio  endeavored  to  extend  a 
knowledge  of  the  Gospel  to  his  heathen  colonial  subjects  by  or- 
ganizing missions  for  their  conversion  and  instruction.  In  1705 
the  missionary  Ziegenbalg  was  sent  by  him  to  the  Danish  trading 
station  at  Tranquebar,  in  India,  to  teach  the  Hindoos,  and  in  1721 
Hans  Egede,  with  his  wife,  went  to  Greenland  to  preach  to  the 
natives,  who,  since  the  Black  Death  in  1350,  had  been  apparently 
forgotten  by  the  mother  country.  Frederick  caused  the  town  of 
Godthaab  to  be  founded  in  1721  and  a  Greenland  trading  com- 
pany to  be  incorporated  in  1723,  and  thus  this  long-neglected  colony 
was  reopened  to  the  rest  of  the  world. 

Frederick  also  devoted  considerable  attention  to  his  fleet  and 
was  well  repaid  by  the  able  body  of  seamen  which  the  Danish  navy 
possessed  at  the  close  of  his  reign.  The  gallant  deeds  of  his  brave 
admiral,  Peder  Vessel,  better  known  as  Tordcnskiold  (Thunder- 
shield),  recall,  by  their  daring  success  and  extraordinary  character, 
the  memory  of  tliose  northern  sea-kings  of  old,  whose  names,  like 
his  own,  were  a  shield  to  their  friends  and  a  thunderbolt  to  their 
foes.  Frederick  unfortunately  followed  tlie  j)rccedcnt  set  by 
numerous  impecunious  monarchs  of  the  time  and  let  out  for  hire 
his  armies  to  other  princes  who  needed  and  could  afford  to  pay 


i>38  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1723-1737 

for  foreign  auxiliaries.  Thus  12,000  Danes  were  lent  to  England 
for  ten  years,  to  fight  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  while 
8000  swelled  the  ranks  of  the  imperialists  at  the  same  time,  and 
the  money  which  they  too  often  purchased  with  their  lives  was  used 
by  the  king  to  pay  off  the  arrears  of  an  old  debt  due  Holland. 

Frederick  IV.  tried  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  peasantry 
by  abolishing  serfdom.  These  measures,  however,  failed  largely 
of  efficacy  because  of  the  organization  of  a  country  militia,  which 
the  great  landowners  were  called  upon  to  maintain  at  their  own 
expense,  and  which  they  filled  up  by  forcing  into  the  ranks  any 
of  their  peasants  whom  they  wished  to  be  rid  of  or  to  punish 
for  insubordination.  His  measures  for  the  education  of  the  poorer 
classes  were  more  immediately  successful.  At  his  death,  in  1730. 
free  schools  had  been  so  generally  opened  in  all  parts  of  his  king- 
dom that  no  sovereign  of  those  times  numbered  so  large  a  pro- 
portion of  educated  persons  among  his  subjects  as  did  the  Danisli 
king. 

The  reign  of  Christian  VI.  was  remarkable  chiefly  for  iis 
peculiar  un-Danish  and  pronouncedly  German  character.  Tlie 
queen,  Sophia  ■\Iagdalena  of  Kulmbach-Bayreuth,  who.  in  her 
dislike  for  everything  Danish  even  tried  to  prevent  tlie  crown 
prince  being  taught  his  native  tongue,  exerted  her  great  influence 
over  the  king  in  filling  all  offiices  of  trust  W'ith  Germans,  and  in  ban- 
ishing from  the  court  the  language  and  usages  of  the  country.  She 
had  also  a  fatal  mania  for  building,  which  led  her  to  pull  down 
one  palace  only  to  erect  another  on  some  site  that  ])leased  her  bet- 
ter. Thus  she  demolished  the  noble  castle  of  Axelhus  in  Copen- 
hagen, which  Frederick  IV.  had  restored  and  enlarged  at  great 
expense,  and  substituted  for  it  the  enormous  building  known  as 
Christiansborg,  which  cost  near  3.000,000  rix  dc^llars,  and  was 
seven  years  in  building.  Likewise,  to  gratify  a  whim  of  hers,  a 
beautiful  hunting  ])alace  was  erected  at  Hirschholm,  nn  a  j)icce  of 
swampy  land,  but  the  foundations  soon  gave  way  and  the  house 
had  to  be  ])u]led  down. 

While  the  queen  was  thus  indulging  her  expensive  hobby,  the 
king  was  introducing  a  system  of  bigotry  and  pietism  to  which 
Denmark  had  hitlierto  been  an  entire  stranger,  and  which  soon  con- 
ducted into  the  kingdom  the  most  dej^lorable  hypocrisy  and  intol- 
erance. A  general  clinrch  inspection  college  was  established  in 
i/^y.  which  ma}-  he  regarded  as  a  Protestant  court  of  infjin'silion. 


BENEVOLENT     D  E  S  P  0  T  I  S  ]^I  239 

1737-1751 

for  the  duties  of  its  directors  consisted  ia  taking  cognizance  of  the 
doctrines  and  lives  of  all  preachers  and  teachers  in  the  kingdom, 
watching  over  the  proper  performance  of  church  ser^•ices,  and  in- 
specting all  works  that  passed  through  the  Danish  press.  Heavy 
penalties  were  inflicted,  and  severe  reproofs  were  publicly  given 
from  the  pulpits  in  accordance  with  the  decisions  of  this  inquisi- 
torial tribunal.  Neglect  of  attendance  at  church  was  punished  by 
money  fines,  or,  in  default  of  payment,  by  the  long-disused  i)enalty 
of  standing  in  the  stocks,  which  were  for  that  jnu-pose  erected  be- 
fore every  church  door.  All  public  amusements  were  forl)idden, 
together  with  recreations  such  as  riding  or  driving  on  a  Sunday  : 
all  the  old  national  games  and  festivities  were  put  down  as  "  tilings 
offensive  to  God  and  injurious  to  the  workingman."  A  royal 
decree  was  drawn  up  for  the  maintenance  of  household  piety  and 
domestic  virtue  in  Iceland,  in  which  the  islanders  were  warned  to 
abstain  from  reading  idle  stories,  and  so-called  sagas  which  were 
not  "  seemly  for  a  Christian  soul's  entertainment  and  were  a  cause 
of  offense  to  the  Holy  Ghost."  The  result  of  these  coercive  meas- 
ures was  to  create  great  dissensions  in  churches  and  families,  and 
to  give  rise  to  a  party  who,  in  spite  of  all  restrictions,  showed  utter 
indifference  to  religion  and  tried  by  ridicule  to  bring  the  pietists 
into  discredit. 

When,  by  the  death  of  Christian  YL,  in  1746,  his  eldest  son, 
Frederick  V.,  ascended  the  throne,  all  the  ordinances  of  the  for- 
mer reign  were  annulled,  and  brilliancy  and  liberty  \\ere  restored 
to  the  court  under  the  direction  of  the  good-humored  king  and 
his  lively  queen,  Louisa,  daughter  of  George  II.  of  luigland.  The 
royal  couple,  by  their  youth,  beauty,  and  affability,  won  the  hearts 
of  tlie  people,  and  the  nation  at  large  rejoiced  without  concealment 
at  their  release  from  the  puritanical  thraldom  in  which  the  late 
king  had  held  them.  At  first  the  reaction  seemed  harmless  and 
even  beneficial,  and,  as  knig  as  Queen  Louisa  lived,  the  amuse- 
ments of  the  court  were  kept  within  the  bounds  of  moderation, 
but  after  her  death,  in  1751,  and  v^-hen  another  queen,  Juliana 
Maria  of  Brunswick,  had  taken  her  j^Iace,  greater  luxury  began  to 
prevail,  and  in  the  attempt  to  imitate  the  sumptuous  habits  oi  the 
French,  the  Danish  royal  family  were  led  to  incur  expenses  for 
which  the  ordinar\-  resources  of  the  crown  were  quite  inadc(|natc. 
Frederick  himself,  toward  the  clo'^e  ';f  his  life,  fell  into  incliriety, 
which^  coupled  with  his  easy  gond-nature,  often  ma<le  liim  a  Wuil 


240  SCANDINAVIA 

1751-1766 

in  the  hands  of  unworthy  favorites.  But  although  he  was  not  him- 
self an  active  or  efficient  ruler,  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  secure 
able  ministers,  among  whom  the  most  distinguished  were  Counts 
Schimmelmann  and  Bernstorf.  To  the  latter,  who  subscribed  to 
the  tenets  and  philosophy  of  eighteenth-century  benevolent  mon- 
archy, Denmark  owes  a  large  debt  of  gratitude,  for  to  him  are 
mainly  due  all  the  great  improvements  in  manufactures,  trade, 
and  agriculture  which  distinguish  this  reign.  He  encouraged  learn- 
ing, established  societies  for  the  promotion  of  science,  invited 
learned  teachers,  as  ]Mallet  and  Schlegel,  into  the  country;  was  the 
means  of  sending  Xiebuhr  to  Arabia  to  make  archaeological  re- 
searches :  cooperated  Avith  the  Norwegian  Holberg,  the  greatest 
dramatic  writer  of  his  time,  in  the  reorganization  of  the  noble 
academy  of  Soro  near  Copenhagen :  founded  hospitals  in  the  chief 
towns  of  the  kingdom,  and  in  many  other  ways  used  his  great 
influence  in  promoting  the  general  education  of  the  people. 

The  Gottorp  princes,  through  the  accession  of  the  head  of 
their  house  to  the  throne  of  Russia,  had  come  into  the  control  of 
great  power  and  influence.  Charles  Peter  L'lrik,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  Peter  III.,  entertained  a  strong  resentment  toward  Denmark 
on  account  (jf  the  losses  inflicted  upon  his  family  by  the  incorpora- 
tion of  the  Slesvig  territories  with  the  Danish  crown  lands.  In 
1762  he  sent  an  army  into  Mecklenburg  with  orders  to  advance 
upon  the  duchies,  and  openly  aimounced  his  intention  of  driving 
the  Danish  royal  family  out  of  Europe  and  forcing  them  to  take 
refuge  in  their  East  Indian  settlement  at  Tranquebar.  The  dan- 
ger was  great  and  the  Danes  were  in  daily  expectation  of  hearing 
that  the  fleet,  which  had  been  equipped  in  haste  to  defend  the  coasts, 
had  come  to  blows  with  the  Russian  squadron  lying  in  wait  for  it 
in  the  Baltic,  when  their  a])prehensions  were  suddenly  set  at  rest 
by  the  news  of  the  murder  of  Peter,  on  July  14,  1762.  Tlie  cm- 
l)rcss.  Catherine  IT.,  who  succeeded  her  husband,  at  once  concluded 
a  ])cace  whh  Denmark,  by  which  she  renounced,  in  the  name  of  her 
son.  all  claims  to  the  Gottorp  lands  in  Holstein  in  exchange  fnr 
Oldcnburg  and  13elmenlK)rst.  This  treaty,  which  was  brought 
about  ])y  the  able  dijjlomacy  of  Count  Bernstorf,  relieved  Denmark 
of  the  mo-^t  formidable  danger  that  her  independence  as  a  nation 
had  ever  encountered. 

Christian  VII.  was  but  seventeen  years  of  age  when  he  suc- 
cee!(.'i  lo  the  crown  in    176'").      He  was  obstinate  and  morose  of 


BENEVOLENT     DESPOTISM  241 

1766-1771 

disposition  and  was  weak  both  in  body  and  mind.  His  distrust 
of  his  stepmother,  the  dowager-queen  JuHana  Maria,  induced  him 
to  dismiss  from  his  service  all  who  had  enjoyed  favor  during  the 
former  reign  and  to  fill  their  places  with  new  favorites.  Thus., 
within  the  first  few  years  of  his  reign,  Count  Bernstorf,  Admiral 
Danneskjold-Samsoe,  to  whom  the  Danish  navy  owed  much  of 
its  efficiency,  and  several  other  able  ministers  of  the  crown,  had 
been  driven  out  of  the  country,  and  all  the  power  of  the  state 
thrown  into  the  hands,  first  of  Count  Hoik,  a  young  man  of  vicious 
habits,  who  did  much  to  injure  the  king  in  health  and  character, 
and  afterward  into  those  of  Brandt  and  Struensee.  These  two 
men,  whose  names  are  intimately  associated  with  the  extraordinary 
events  which  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  brought  about  their  own 
ruin  and  that  of  the  young  queen,  the  beautiful  Caroline  iVIatilda, 
sister  of  George  HI.  of  England,  and  threw  the  king  into  the  power 
of  his  enemies,  w^ere  by  no  means  of  equal  capacity  or  like  respon- 
sibility. Johan  Frederick  Struensee,  the  originator  and  guiding 
spirit  in  all  the  despotic  measures  in  which  both  were  engaged, 
was  a  man  of  great  natural  ability  and  extensive  knowledge.  At 
the  time  he  was  appointed  private  physician  to  Christian  VIT.  dur- 
ing the  tour  which  that  king  made  in  1768  through  the  principal 
countries  of  Europe,  he  had  already  acquired  considerable  reputa- 
tion, both  in  his  profession  and  by  his  literary  productions,  and 
when  the  University  of  Oxford,  in  the  course  of  the  same  year, 
conferred  the  degree  of  D.  C.  L.  on  King  Christian,  they  gave  that 
of  M.  D,  to  Struensee,  "  in  recognition  of  his  great  merits  in  science 
and  literature."  By  his  address  this  able  man  soon  supplanted 
the  favorite.  Count  Hoik,  and  succeeded  in  persuading  the  king 
to  recall  from  banishment  his  former  chamberlain,  Enevokl  von 
Brandt,  and  Count  Rantzau-Ascheberg,  a  dismissed  minister, 
whose  acquaintance  Struensee  had  made  in  Paris,  and  on  whose 
gratitude  he  thought  he  might  rely.  Tlie  new  favorite  soon  aj)- 
peared  to  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the  young  queen  as  thoroughly 
as  that  of  her  half-imbecile  husband,  and  rising  rapidly  from  one 
degree  of  power  to  another,  was  nominated,  in  the  summer  of 
1 77 1,  to  the  rank  of  prime  minister  of  tlie  ])rivy  council,  a  dignity 
hitherto  unknown  in  Denmark.  From  that  moment  his  word  was 
supreme,  for  instead  of  acting  in  concert  with  the  various  minis- 
terial colleges,  as  had  been  customary  in  the  case  of  other  Danish 
ministers  of  the  crown,  Struensee  governed  by  means  of  "  cabinet 


.'>42  SC  A  N  1)  I  N  A  VI  A 

1771-1772 

orders,"  signed  only  by  himself,  which  had  the  same  weight  as  if 
they  had  been  royal  decrees  bearing  the  sovereign's  signature. 

Strnensee's  extraordinary  talents,  h'beral  ideas,  and  great  ca- 
])acity  for  business,  joined  to  his  rapid  and  unhesitating  decision  in 
fonning  a  judgment,  enabled  him  to  introduce  new  and  better  sys- 
tems of  government  into  many  of  the  departments  of  the  public 
service.  He  improved  the  routine  of  the  law  courts,  organized 
police  and  sanitar}-  reforms,  established  freedom  of  the  press,  and 
made  much-needed  retrenchments  in  the  expenses  of  the  court  and  of 
all  the  public  offices.  On  the  other  hand,  his  indolent  conduct,  his 
contempt  for  all  the  observances  and  doctrines  of  religion,  his 
ignorance  of  the  language  and  habits  of  the  country  over  which 
he  ruled,  his  headstrong  haste  in  effecting  changes,  and  the  sus- 
picion that  he  was  making  himself  and  his  friends  rich  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  working  classes,  who  wxmt  heavily  oppressed  with 
taxes,  all  concurred  in  raising  a  host  of  enemies  against  him  in 
every  rank  of  the  community.  The  queen-dowager  and  her  son, 
the  so-called  *'  Hereditary  Prince."  Frederick,  watched  the  min- 
ister's rapid  rise  with  fear  and  indignation.  \\'hen,  therefore,  on 
the  occasion  of  some  disturbances  among  the  sailors  in  the  docks, 
Struensee  gave  evidence  of  want  of  personal  courage  and  presence 
of  mind,  they  thought  the  moment  favorable  to  join  forces  with 
Count  Rantzau-Ascheberg  and  others,  who  had  been  estranged 
from  him  by  his  arrogance.  A  plot  was  soon  hatched.  On  the 
in'ght  of  January  i6,  1772,  the  conspirators  forced  their  way  into 
the  king's  bedroom,  and  by  their  representations  regarding  the 
(|ueen's  conduct  and  her  intimacy  with  Struensee,  obtained  Chris- 
tian's signature  to  an  order  for  her  arrest  and  that  of  the  minister 
and  of  Brandt.  The  unhappy  Caroline  ^Matilda,  who  only  three 
hours  before  had  closed  a  court  ball  in  a  dance  with  Prince  Freder- 
ick, was  awakened  out  of  her  sleep  bv  an  armed  guard,  who  com- 
manrled  her  to  rise  and  dress  herself  in  all  haste  for  a  journey. 
'I  he  same  night  she  was  conveved  in  a  closed  carriage  to  the  caslle 
of  CrDnborg.  near  Flsinore,  without  being  allowed  t(^  see  her  two 
children,  the  elder  nf  whom,  the  Crown  Prince  Frederick,  was  only 
three  years  old,  and  the  younger,  a  daughter,  still  .an  infant  in 
arms.  After  a  Formal  dca]  ')f  separation  had  passed  between  llie 
king  and  herself  she  was  removed  from  Cronborg  through  the  in- 
llucnre  of  her  brother.  King  George  TH.  of  Fngland.  and  conveyed 
in  an    Fji<7lisli   man  of- war  to  Zclle.   in  Hanover,  where  she  lived 


BEN  E  V  ()  LENT     D  E  S  F  0  T  T  S  "SI  24J3 

1772 

until  her  death,  in  1775,  engaged  in  works  of  diarity  among  the 
poor  and  sick, 

Strnensee  and  Brandt  had.  in  the  meantime,  been  condemned 
to  death  for  treason,  and  sentenced  to  lose  their  right  hands  before 
they  were  beheaded,  which  sentence  was  pubh'cly  executed  outside 
the  gates  of  Copenhagen,  on  April  28,  1772;  but  beyond  tliese 
two  victims  this  eventful  revolution  was  free  from  bloodshed. 
The  king's  constantly  increasing  feebleness  of  mind  and  body  left 
him  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  queen-dowager  and  her  son, 
who,  in  fact,  although  not  in  name,  ruled  the  kingdom  till  the  year 
1784,  when  the  Crown  Prince  Frederick  attained  the  legal  major- 
ity of  sixteen,  and  at  once  claimed  the  right  of  acting  as  regent  or 
joint  ruler  with  his  father.  During  the  period  of  his  minority 
the  affairs  of  the  state  had  been  for  the  most  part  in  the  hands  of 
the  hereditary  prince's  friend.  Count  Ove  Hogh  Guldberg,  who 
had  been  a  chief  agent  in  bringing  about  the  downfall  of  Struensee, 
and  whose  policy  was  in  every  respect  tlie  ojiposite  of  that  of  the 
minister  whom  he  had  ruined.  Under  Guldberg  all  the  kuvs, 
whether  good  or  bad,  that  had  been  passed  under  Struensee's  min- 
istry were  set  aside.  The  use  of  the  Danish  language  was  encour- 
aged. The  German  influence  in  the  country  was  checked  by  the 
appointment  to  the  public  service  of  only  nati\-e  born  or  naturalized 
subjects  of  Denmark.  Less  commendable  was  the  issue  of  vast 
quantities  of  paper  money  which  threw  both  the  public  and  private 
finances  into  frightful  disorder  and  disturbed  both  the  peace  and 
the  credit  of  the  nation  for  many  years. 

It  may  be  well  to  summarize  the  principal  events  of  the  i)erio(l 
lying  between  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  and  the  accession  of  Gus- 
tavus  in.  to  the  Swedish  throne.  In  1660  I'^rederick  HI.  estal)- 
lished  absolute  monarchy  in  Denmarl:  and  in  i6c)3  Charles  XI. 
accomplished  practically  the  same  result  in  .Sweden.  Hie  ac]n'e\-e- 
ment  of  Charles  XL,  how^ever.  barely  survived  tlie  reign  of  his 
successor,  while  that  of  Frederick  III.  was  destined  to  endure  for 
nearly  two  centuries  and  a  half.  The  Treaty  of  Xystad.  tlie  chief 
event  of  the  period  under  review,  affecting  tlie  international  status 
of  the  two  nations,  was  a  triumph  for  Denm.ark  and  a  defeat  for 
Sw-eden.  The  charter  of  1720  gave  over  the  latter  pcnver  to  an 
oligarchy  once  more,  the  fatuous  and  corrtipt  policy  of  uhici!.  after 
Arvid  Florn's  death,  not  only  accelerated  the  decline  o\  Sweden's 
prestige,  but  greath'  ham])ered   .Swedish   i)articipation   in  the  c<mi- 


24-4.  SCANDINAVIA 

1772 

spicuous  commercial  development  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In 
Denmark,  on  the  other  hand,  with  the  accession  of  Frederick  IV., 
in  1699,  a  monarch  avowing,  and  for  the  greater  part  living  up  to, 
the  best  tenets  of  benevolent  despotism  came  to  the  throne,  to 
foster  the  growth  of  his  realm  in  every  way.  His  successors  were 
not  invariably  as  wise  as  himself,  but  in  the  famous  Struensee,  and 
later  in  Bernstorf,  the  patriarchal  view  of  monarchy  again  found 
able  exponents,  much  to  the  advantage  of  the  Danish  people.  The 
eighteenth  century  is  decidedly  a  period  of  compensation  to  Den- 
mark for  her  previous  eclipse  by  her  rival  and  the  dull  respectability 
of  her  rulers  in  the  preceding  period  as  contrasted  with  the  brilliant 
versatility  of  the  wearer  of  the  Swedish  diadem. 


PART  IV 

MODERN  SCANDINAVIA.    1771-1910 


Chapter    XIX 

SCANDINAVIA  IN  THE  AGE  OF  POLITICAI.  REVOLUTION 

1771-1844 

PRINCE  GUSTAVUS  was  in  Paris  wlien  the  news  of  his 
father's  death  reached  him,  but  he  returned  posthaste  to 
Stockholm  to  receive  the  crown.  In  his  person  a  native 
dynasty  once  more  ascended  the  Swedish  throne.  He  was  now 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  well  educated,  handsome  of  person,  grace- 
ful of  manner,  affable,  and  charming  of  address,  accomplished  and 
eloquent.  But  his  imagination  was  dangerously  apt  to  mislead 
him  and  he  had  an  exaggerated  idea  of  his  royal  character,  where- 
fore he  was  controlled  by  an  ardent  desire  to  emulate  the  renown 
of  his  predecessors,  and  vainly  fancied  that  he  could  restore  Sweden 
to  her  erstwhile  rank  among  the  powers  of  Europe.  It  was  in 
pursuance  of  this  idea  that  he  resolved  at  the  outset  to  free  himself 
from  the  thraldom  of  the  council  and  nobilit}^  A  large  party 
willing  to  aid  in  this  design  was  at  hand,  the  creation,  in  part  at 
least,  of  French  gold,  and  the  diplomacy  of  tlie  Count  de  Ver- 
gennes,  who  expected  to  see  in  Sweden,  under  the  rule  of  a  grate- 
ful despot,  a  more  effective  ally  than  she  had  proved  in  the  regime 
of  warring  and  corrupt  factions.  The  coup  d'etat  was  initiated  by 
one  Captain  Hellichius,  who  got  up  a  mock  revolt  in  the  street:^ 
of  the  capital  and  thus  furnished  Gustavus  with  an  excuse  to  collect 
a  large  body  of  troops.  Suddenly  the  council  were  arrested  and 
the  diet  forced,  by  the  threat  of  dire  consequences,  to  subscribe  to 
a  "  new  form  of  administration,"  by  which  it  retained  the  right 
to  approve  or  reject  new  taxes,  and  declarations  of  war,  but  sur- 
rendered all  administrative  prerogatives  to  the  king. 

Gustavus  was  a  thorough-going  Gallomaniac,  aping  French 
manners  and  patronizing  French  actors  and  dancers.  French  Ijc- 
came  the  language  of  the  court  and  of  society,  tlieaters  and  an  opera 
house  were  opened  at  Stockholm,  where  only  French  pieces  were 
given,  and  in  all  tlie  concerns  of  life  Gustavus  tried  to  make  hini 
self  conspicuous  by  his  adoption  of  Parisian  manners  and  by  his 
elegance  and  polished  taste.     But  his  costly  foreign  travels,  in  ilic 

'24-7 


248  SCANDINAVIA 

1772078* 

course  of  which  he  squandered  large  sums  of  money  on  objects 
of  art,  while  his  subjects  at  home  were  suffering  from  famine,  and 
his  extravagance  in  raising  showy  regiments  of  horse  guards 
merely  for  his  own  gratification,  aroused,  in  time,  much  resentment 
among  his  subjects. 

Gustavus  was  foolish  enough  to  declare  war  against  Russia, 
in  1788,  hoping  by  this  device  to  extricate  himself  from  a  quar- 
rel with  the  diet,  whose  powers,  curtailed  though  they  already  were, 
he  had  yet  found  it  necessary  to  infringe.  At  the  outset  the  ab- 
sence of  the  Russian  army,  which  was  engaged  in  war  with  Tur- 
key, enabled  him,  as  he  had  anticipated,  to  advance  upon  St. 
Petersburg  without  being  intercepted  in  his  march.  He  had  for- 
gotten, however,  that  he  would  have  to  reckon  with  the  diplomacy 
and  intrigue  of  Catherine  II.  This  adroit  and  audacious  woman 
not  only  succeeded  in  instigating  mutiny  among  Gustavus's  officers 
in  Finland,  who  forthwith  refused  to  engage  in  an  invasion  nc^t 
sanctioned  by  the  estates,  but  also  induced  Denmark  to  dispatch  an 
army  against  her  hereditary  foe  while  Gustavus  was  in  Finland 
with  tlie  entire  military  defense  of  the  Swedish  realm.  Never  had 
Swedish  independence  been  in  graver  peril.  "  The  army  was  in  open 
mutiny;  the  fleet  was  blockaded  at  Sveaborg;  a  Russian  squadron 
occupied  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia:  a  combined  Russo-Danish  squadron 
swept  the  Cattegat ;  a  Danish  army  was  advancing  upon  Gote- 
borg.  .  .  ,  Confusion  reigned  in  the  capital,  panic  in  the  prov- 
inces. A  perplexed  senate,  a  treacherous  nobility,  a  stupefied  popu- 
lation were  anxiously  watching  every  movement  of  a  defenseless 
king."  ^  From  his  i)erilous  plight  Gustavus,  who  had  now  re- 
turned from  Finland,  was  snatched  by  the  loyalty  of  the  men  of 
Dalekarlia,  who  followed  their  monarch  in  a  body  to  the  relief  of 
Goteborg.  1lie  force  which  Sweden  was  thus  enabled  to  display, 
together  with  the  intervention  at  this  timely  moment  of  the  Prus- 
sian and  luigiish  envoys,  compelled  Denmark  to  yield  an  armistice 
and  to  witlidraw  her  forces  from  Sweden,  in  October,  1788.  Gus- 
tavus was  now  at  the  height  of  his  popularity,  and  he  determined 
to  make  use  of  it.  By  the  so-called  "  safety  measures  "  of  the  same 
year,  the  work  of  the  coup  d'etat  of  1772  was  completed,  and 
Sweden  was  once  more  made  an  absolute  monarchy.  *'  Both  revo- 
lutions r.-ni  1x'  justified  on  the  ground  that  they  saved  Sweden  " 
— together  with  the  determination  of  Fngland  and  Prussia  to  niain- 
'  \\.  Xiljtt  llain:  "  (Justavus  HI.  and  his  Contcmi)orarics,"  vol.  11.  pp.  31-32- 


POLITICAL     REVOLUTION  249 

1788-1792 

tain  the  balance  of  power  in  the  Baltic — "  from  becoming-  a  Rus- 
sian province."  ^  In  the  meantime  the  war  with  Russia  continued. 
On  one  occasion  Gustavus  lost  7000  men  in  a  sea  fight ;  later  Cath- 
erine lost  12,000,  and  fifty-five  vessels.  But  in  1789  the  French 
Revolution  broke  out.  Both  monarchs  became  anxious  for  peace. 
The  Treaty  of  Verela,  of  1790,  was  based  on  the  status  quo  ante 
helium. 

Gustavus  was  now  an  absolute  monarch.  Why  should  he  not 
become  the  defender  of  absolute  monarchy?  At  any  rate,  feeling 
a  sentimental  sympathy  for  Marie  Antoinette,  he  next  turned  his 
attention  to  assisting  the  first  coalition  in  its  attempt  to  restore  the 
Bourbon  family  to  the  throne  of  France.  He  wished  to  send  a 
fleet  to  ravage  the  French  coast  and  even  conceived  the  flattering 
notion  that  he  might  act  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  Prussian 
and  Austrian  annies  in  their  operations  against  the  French  revolu- 
tionary government.  However,  to  carry  out  such  grand  schemes. 
money  was  needed,  and  upon  this  rock  Gustavus  and  his  subjects 
parted.  The  nobility  of  the  former  bureaucracy  were  ready  with  a 
conspiracy.  The  leaders  in  the  plot  were  the  Counts  Ribbing. 
Horn,  Pechlin,  and  Bjelke;  but  the  person  selected  to  carry  out 
their  design,  which  was  to  assassinate  the  king,  was  a  man  of 
inferior  rank,  called  Ankerstrom,  who  had  formerly  served  in  the 
army  and  hated  Gustavus  for  private  reasons.  On  tiie  night  of 
March  16,  1792,  at  a  masquerade,  held  in  the  opera  house,  Anker- 
strom approached  the  king  and  discharged  a  pistol  into  his  side. 
The  intending  murderer  then  disappeared  in  the  crowd,  while  the 
other  conspirators,  disguised  in  black  masks  and  cloaks,  rushed 
in  a  body  toward  the  doors  of  the  hall.  Gustavus  called  out  as  tlie 
shot  struck  him,  "  I  am  wounded;  seize  the  traitor  ";  but  when  his 
attendants,  on  recognizing  his  voice,  pressed  around  him,  he  de- 
clared that  he  did  not  think  he  had  been  hurt.  The  result  proved 
that  he  had  been  fatally  wounded.  After  suffering  extreme  agony 
for  thirteen  days,  in  consequence  of  the  jagged  and  rough  surface 
of  the  broken  bits  of  lead  with  which  the  pistol  had  been  cliarged, 
he  died  on  March  29,  1792,  at  the  age  of  forty-six. 

Gustavus  appointed  a  regency  for  his  only  son,  then  scarcely 
fourteen  years  old,  naming  his  brother,  Duke  Charles  of  Soedcr- 
mannland,  to  be  president  or  chief  director  of  the  administration. 
Tlie  duke  was  an  aVjle,  upright  man,  but  he  lacked  conrulencc  in  his 
own  judgment,  a  deficiency  which  led  him  to  intrust  many  import 
-  lfa'<saH  ;   "  Tlic    I'.alancc   "f   l*i;\vcr,"   p.   ,v''f. 


250  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  \  I  A 

1792-1800 

ant  matters  of  state  to  his  favorite,  the  haughty,  overbearing  Baron 
Reuterholm.  In  nearly  every  respect  the  regent  reversed  the  pol- 
icy of  the  late  monarch,  entering  into  amicable  relations  with  the 
leaders  of  the  French  republic,  and  joining  the  Danish  king  in  a 
compact  of  armed  neutrality  for  the  defense  of  the  shipping  of  their 
respective  kingdoms. 

By  these  measures  Sweden  gave  offense  to  Russia,  which 
power  Duke  Charles  greatly  distrusted,  and  a  war  between  the 
two  countries  was  averted  for  the  time  only  by  the  proposal  o\ 
Baron  Reuterholm  to  the  Empress  Catherine  that  the  young  king 
should  marry  her  granddaughter,  the  Grand  Duchess  Alexandra. 
Gustavus  obediently  went  to  St.  Petersburg  with  his  uncle,  and 
everything  seemed  settled  for  the  betrothal  of  the  young  couple, 
which  was  to  be  publicly  announced  at  a  court  ball.  But  when  the 
evening  appointed  for  the  ceremony  arrived  the  duke  had  to  ex- 
plain to  the  imperial  family  that  his  nephew  had  refused  to  sign 
the  marriage  contract,  because  it  secured  to  the  future  queen  the 
free  exercise  of  her  own  religion  and  allowed  her  to  have  a  chapel 
fitted  up  in  accordance  with  the  prescriptions  of  the  Greek  Church. 
The  empress  refused  after  that  to  hold  any  further  communications 
witli  the  young  king,  who,  therefore,  had  to  return  to  Sweden 
without  celebrating  his  betrothal.  He  was  able,  subsequently,  to 
satisfy  his  fine  qualms  of  conscience  by  marr}'ing  the  Princess 
Frederika  of  Baden,  a  Lutheran  like  himself. 

But  Gustavus,  who  attained  his  majority  in  1796,  was  not 
merely  bigoted :  he  was  superstitious,  and  it  was  a  great  misfor- 
tune both  for  himself  and  his  realm  that  the  principal  object  of  his 
superstitious  abhorrence  was  no  less  a  personage  than  Napoleon 
Bonaparte.  At  first,  however,  Gustavus  continued  the  prudent 
jjolicy  of  a  neutrality  friendly  toward  the  French,  that  his  uncle 
had  initiated.  Thus,  in  December,  t8oo,  Sweden  united  with  Den- 
mark, Russia,  and  Prussia  in  the  revival  of  the  Northern  Maritime 
League,  the  pur])ose  of  which  was  to  resist  by  force  England's 
jjolicy  of  interference  with  neutral  merchantmen  upon  the  high 
seas.  Tlie  Icag-ue  asserted  that  a  neutral  flag  covered  all  goods  not 
ccintraband  of  war,  that  a  blockade  to  be  legal  must  be  actual,  that 
the  list  of  contraband  articles  could  not  be  so  extended  as  to  affect 
greatly  neutral  ci^mmerce;  that  while  a  neutral  vessel  was  usually 
subject  to  search  for  contraband  by  the  warships  oi  a  belligerent, 
tlicy  were  not  so  <nl)ject  when  nn<ler  the  official  convoy  of  a  neu- 


POLITICAL     REVOLUTION  251 

1800-1809 

tral's  man-of-war.  England,  on  the  other  hand,  who  depended 
upon  her  command  of  the  sea  to  work  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon, 
denied,  or  at  least  violated,  every  one  of  these  maxims.  For  the 
time  being  the  Maritime  League  seemed  likely  to  determine  the 
great  European  contest  in  favor  of  the  French  republic. 

In  May,  however.  Napoleon  became  emperor.  To  Gustavus's 
mind  his  identification  with  the  Great  Beast  of  the  Apocalypse  was 
complete.  Early  in  1805  the  "  third  coalition  "  was  formed  by 
Englantl,  Austria,  and  Russia.  Sweden  followed  the  St.  Peters- 
burg government  in  its  desertion  of  the  Alaritime  League,  and 
definitely  ranged  itself  wath  the  enemies  of  the  French  emph-e. 
Austerlitz,  Jena,  Auerstiidt,  and  Friedland  sufficed  to  shatter  the 
third  coalition  and  also  the  fourth,  which  Sweden  had  allied  herself 
with  by  the  Treaty  of  Bartenstein,  in  April,  1807.  By  the  Treatv 
of  Tilsit  Napoleon  was  able  for  the  moment  to  exclude  England 
from  every  port  of  northern  Europe.  Gustavus,  nevertheless,  con- 
tinued recalcitrant  and  in  the  very  face  of  the  "  Continental  Sys- 
tem "  declared  Goteborg  an  open  port  for  the  trading  ships  of  all 
nations.  If  he  could  have  sustained  his  act  of  defiance  he  would, 
undoubtedly,  have  been  greatly  benefiting  his  realm.  In  face  of 
the  facts,  however,  Gustavus's  performance  was  suicidal.  Imme- 
diately Alexander  of  Russia,  playing  the  part  of  policeman  for  the 
continental  system,  declared  war  upon  Sweden  and  threw  an  over- 
whelming force  into  Finland.  The  desperate  valor  of  the  Swedish 
forces,  under  Adlerkreuz,  prolonged  the  struggle  through  the  years 
1808  and  1809.  But  at  last  the  treachery  of  the  commandant  of 
the  impregnable  fortress  of  Sveaborg  decided  the  fate  of  Finland 
and  the  Island  of  Aaland,  and  laid  the  whole  of  northern  Sweden 
open  to  Russian  invasion.  The  same  year  a  French  army,  under 
Marshal  Bruno,  occupied  Swedish  Pomerania. 

In  the  meantime  Gustavus  began  a  feeble  attack  upon  the 
Danes  along  the  Norwegian  frontier.  England  dispatched  forces 
under  Sir  John  Moore  to  Sweden's  assistance,  while  Napoleon 
threw  an  army,  under  General  Bernadotte,  into  Jutland  on  the  pre- 
tense of  supporting  Denmark.  Gustavus  at  once  tried  to  induce 
Moore  to  march  into  Finland  against  the  Russians,  and,  when  he 
refused,  violently  abused  him.  Even  Gustavus's  most  loyal  sub- 
jects now  began  to  doubt  his  sanity.  A  conspiracy  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  officers,  and  headed  by  the  Generals  Adlerkreuz  and  Adler- 
sparre,  was  formed  to  force  him  t(j  abdicate.     The  object  of  the 


^52  SCANDINAVIA 

1809 

conspirators  was  at  first  not  merely  to  remove  the  king,  but  to 
unite  Sweden  and  Norway  under  the  rule  of  the  Danish  stadholder, 
Prince  Christian  Augustus  of  Augustenburg.  who  had  probably 
given  his  sanction  to  it.  At  all  events  the  prince  allowed  the  war 
against  Sweden  to  be  carried  on  in  a  very  desultory  manner,  and 
consented  to  a  truce  with  Adlersparre,  immediately  following 
which  the  latter  hurried  to  Stockholm  to  carry  out  his  designs.  On 
the  evening  of  March  13,  1809,  while  Adlersparre  was  holding  his 
troops  under  arms  before  the  gates  of  Stockholm,  Adlerkreuz, 
with  six  attendants,  entered  the  king's  apartment  and  announced 
to  him  that  he  had  come,  in  the  name  of  the  army,  to  insist  that  the 
king  should  not  go  to  Skaania  to  superintend  preparations  for  fur- 
ther hostilities,  since  the  Swedes  were  determined  to  have  an  end 
of  these  futile  and  ruinous  wars.  Gustavus,  upon  hearing  this 
speech,  drew  his  sword  and  called  aloud  for  "  help  against  trai- 
tors," but  Adlerkreuz's  men  closed  in  around  him  and  disarmed 
him.  After  an  hour's  detention  he  succeeded  in  making  his  escape 
through  a  concealed  door  in  the  wainscoting,  and  hurried  into 
the  courtyard  to  ri)use  the  watch.  He  was  pursued,  however,  and 
carried  back  to  his  apartments,  and  the  following  day  conveyed, 
under  a  strong  guard,  to  the  palace  of  Drotthingholm,  where  he 
was  forced  to  sign  a  deed  renouncing  the  Swedish  throne  for  him- 
self and  all  his  descendants.  No  attempt  was  made  from  any 
quarter  to  champion  his  cause,  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  for- 
mally banished  the  kingdom.  After  wandering  about  the  continent 
and  leading  a  strange,  restless  life  in  the  character  of  Colonel  Gus- 
tafsson,  he  died  in  obscurity,  in  the  year  1837,  at  St.  Gall,  in 
Switzerland. 

The  coup  d'etat  having  been  completed  without  bloodshed  or 
disturbance  of  any  kind,  the  estates  met,  and,  in  accordance  with 
the  general  wishes  of  the  nation,  invited  Duke  Charles  of  Soeder- 
mannland  to  undertake  the  administration  until  more  permanent 
arrangements  could  be  made.  In  a  diet  held  in  i8o<)  Gustavus  1\'. 
was  formally  declared  to  have  forfeited  the  crown,  and  Duke 
Cliarles  proclaimed  king,  after  having  agreed  to  accei)t  the  charter 
drawn  u])  b}-  tlic  estates,  along  the  lines  of  the  charter  of  17J0. 
giving  the  sovereign  the  administrative  power,  to  be  exercised, 
however,  only  in  accord  with  the  advice  of  the  council  of  states, 
and  leaving  to  the  diet,  still  composed  of  the  four  orders,  the  right 
of  legislation  and  the  power  of  levying  taxes. 


1809-1810 


POLITICAL     REVOLUTION 


S53 


At  the  same  diet  the  Danish  Stadhokler  of  Norway,  Prince 
Christian  Augustus  of  Augustenburg,  was  designated  as  successor 
to  the  childless  king,  as  a  reward  for  his  friendly  conduct  toward 
Sweden  during  the  late  war  with  Denmark,  friendly  conduct  in- 
deed which  amounted  to  treason  to  Denmark. 

In  the  spring  of  i8to  the  new  heir-apparent  passed  away  at 
a  military   review   at   Helsingborg.      Suspicions   of  poisoning  at- 


tached to  his  sudden  demise,  and  in  the  wild  excitement  of  the 
moment  Count  .\xcl  I'^ersen,  suspected  of  being  the  assassin,  was 
literally  torn  to  pieces  b}-  an  infuriated  mob.  The  government, 
by  way  of  appeasing  popular  opinion,  now  proposed  to  take  the 
deceased  prince's  brother  as  successor  to  the  throne,  and  sent  the 
}onng  Baron  M()rner  to  Paris  to  inform  Napoleon,  whose  depend- 
ency Sweden  had  now  \irtually  I)ccome,  of  their  purpose.  This 
young  man.  however,  like  many  others  of  bis  rank,  had  a  great  de- 


254.  SCANDINAVIA 

1810-1814 

sire  to  see  his  native  country  bron^qiit  more  closely  into  connection 
with  France,  and,  tliinkinj^  to  please  the  emperor,  proposed,  ap- 
parently of  his  own  iniciati\"e,  that  a  l-'rench  general  should  l^e 
chosen  king-  of  Sweden.  Xn])'ile()n  ap])eared  at  first  to  be  gratified 
by  this  proposal,  but  when  Baron  Ab'jrner,  after  receiving  the  con- 
sent of  the  diet,  suggested  Jean  I'lernadotte  (Prince  of  Ponte 
Corvo)  as  the  one  best  fitted  for  the  dignity,  and  begged  the  em- 
peror to  sanction  the  choice  of  the  estates,  the  suspicious  autocrat 
began  to  create  objectifjiis.  and  when  lie  at  hist  gave  the  necessary 
peiTuission,  accompanied  it  with  ominous  words  of  farewell  to  his 
marshal :  ''  Go,  then,"  said  he.  "  and  let  us  fulfill  our  several  des- 
tinies." Jean  Bemadotte  was  in  the  prime  of  life  when  he  was  thus 
suddenly  and  unexpectedlv  adopted  int(j  the  Swedish  royal  family, 
a  man  of  ability,  judgment,  and  resolution,  and  one  of  the  bra\'est 
and  most  successful  of  X.'i]ioleon's  commanders.  On  October  19, 
18 10,  he  renounced  Catholicism  and  was  admitted  into  the  Luth- 
eran Church.  On  November  5  he  \\'as  elected  prince  royal  l)y  the 
Swedish  diet.  He  imniediately  to()k  charge  of  foreign  affairs  ;ind 
began  to  reorganize  the  army.  Napoleon  had  declared  that  lie  did 
nf>t  care  to  what  extent  Sweden  was  dismembered,  'fliis  humiliat- 
ing insult  roused  the  S])irit  of  Ikrnackitte.  ''  Napoleon."  he  ex- 
claimed. "  has  himself  thrown  down  the  gauntlet,  and  I  will  take 
it  up!"  In  April,  1812.  Bemadotte  signed  a  secret  treat}'  with 
the  h^mperor  Alexander  of  Ivussia,  at  .\!)o.  Swed.cn  reir;unced  all 
claims  to  Finland  and  joined  the  last  coalition  against  N;ipo]eon. 
In  return  she  was  promised  Norway,  since  Denmark  was  the 
French  emperor's  ally.  Alexander  also  hinted  that  I'ernadoiie 
might  hope  for  all  of  Denmark,  or  even  for  the  I'rench  crown. 
when  Na])oleon  should  finally  be  dethroned.  ]5y  the  treaties  of 
Kiel  and  X'ienna.  18(4.  tlie  conrlitions  of  tlie  'freaty  of  Abo  were 
carried  cnit.  In  addition.  .Sweden  rccei\-ed,  in  exchange  for  her 
I'omeranian  territories.  4.800,000  rix  dollars,  witli  which  sum  she 
was  able  entirely  to  li(|uid;ite  her  national  clebl. 

To  return  to  Deumarl:.  it  \vill  be  remembered  th.'it  in  1784  tlie 
crown  ])i-ince  cl.-imed  liis  niajoritv  and  as>rinied  tlie  right  to  rule 
jointly  with  liis  father,  the  imbecile  Christian  \dl.  ddie  first  act 
(jf  the  >'oniig  prince  was  {*>  dismiss  Count  (inldi)crg  and  his  part}', 
and  recall  ( "ount  Andre.'is  Peter  i'ernsLorf.  the  former  minister  of 
f(jreign  affairs,  wIkj  had  s(;me  vears  before  retired  fr( 'in  the  ])ublic 
service  in  coiise([uence  of  diCerenccs  with  the  re.-t  of  the  ccjuncil. 


POLITICAL     REVOLUTION  '266 

1788-1801 

After  1792  almost  every  other  state  in  Europe  found  itself  forced 
to  participate  in  the  wars  of  the  revolution.  The  Danes,  however, 
during  this  period  enjoyed  a  remarkable  degree  of  prosperity, 
owing  to  the  condition  of  armed  neutrality  which  the  prudent  and 
cautious  Bernstorf  was  able  to  maintain,  and  which  now  enabled 
Denmark  to  carry  her  trade  to  all  the  principal  mercantile  ports  of 
the  Baltic  and  German  oceans.  But  the  trading  ]:iart  of  the  com- 
munity was  not  unique  in  its  prosperity.  In  1788  a  law  was  passed 
giving  the  peasantry  complete  freedom  from  all  the  bonds  of  serf- 
dom that  still  lingered  on  from  the  ^Middle  Ages.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent undue  license  on  the  part  of  the  younger  ])easants,  the  measure 
was  not  to  come  into  full  force  till  1800  for  those  who  were  under 
thirty-six  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  its  first  enactment.  The  slave 
trade  was  also  declared  illegal  at  this  period  in  all  the  Danish  West 
Indian  Islands,  and  the  example  thus  set  by  Denmark,  in  1792,  was 
soon  followed  by  England  and  other  European  powers. 

As  long  as  Count  Bernstorf  li\-ed  causes  for  strife  between 
Denmark  and  England  had  been  repressed,  but  not  with.out  diffi- 
culty, for  the  English  entered  repeated  protests  against  the  Danes 
engaging  in  the  transportation  of  food  and  forage  into  French  and 
German  ports.  Wdien,  therefore,  after  Bernstorf 's  death,  in  1799, 
Danish  men-of-war  were  sent  to  sea  to  convoy  merchant  vessels, 
open  hostilities  ensued.  The  first  quarrel  was  smootlied  over  for 
the  time:  but  in  iSoo,  wlien  Russia.  Sweden,  and  Prussia  formed 
the  Northern  ^.laritime  League  and  invited  Denmark  to  join  it, 
England  took  alarm,  and  dispatched  a  fleet  under  Admirals  Parker 
and  Nelson  to  tlie  Catlegat.  The  Dar.es.  wholly  unprepared  for 
such  a  step,  yet  did  their  best  to  pre\'ent  the  English  from  passing 
the  Sound.  But  Parker's  fleet  of  fifiy-one  sliips,  including  twenty 
iine-of-battle  ships,  was  an  overwiielining  force.  By  keeping  close 
to  the  Swedisli  coast  it  got  clear  of  tiie  lieavy  cannons  of  Elsinore. 
at  the  mouth  of  the  narrow  strait  between  Sweden  and  Denmark, 
and  cast  anclior  in  th.e  hr.rb(>r  of  C()])enhagcn  on  April  i,  1801. 
T!ic  next  morning,  SIn'ove  I'uesday,  Xelson  attacked  the  Danish 
defenses.  Th.en  follov/cd  a  fierce  and  bloody  engagement  of  five 
h(jurs"  durati(,n,  A\l]ich  cn(lc<!  \:\[]\  ?\el-on*s  sending  an  English 
ofiA'cr  ash(.;i-c,  under  a  flag  of  truce,  to  bear  the  extraordinary 
dcclnvitii  in  liirit  un'c  ^s  th;,'  !  ):nu'/-  c("a:-.(>d  (ii-in;;-  he  woifld  burn  tlie 
j)arii-li  '^liij;-  in.  In-;  liand-  ex  en  lliongli  !ic  s.'irriliced  tlieir  crews. 
The  crown  prince,  against  tlie  wi.--hes  and  advice  of  his  command- 


056  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  A"  I  A 

1801-1808 

ers,  consented  to  discuss  terms  of  peace.  Thus  ended  a  battle 
of  which  Xelson  said  that  it  was  the  most  fiercely  contested  of  the 
hundred  and  five  engagements  in  wliich.  he  liad  taken  part.  The 
Danish  seamen,  under  their  bra\e  and  able  commander,  Olfert 
Fischer,  fought  with  the  daring  for  which  their  nation  had  in  for- 
mer ages  been  noted.  Three  times  the  aged  admiral  left  one  burn- 
ing ship  to  hoist  his  flag  on  another,  while  several  of  the  younger 
captains — among  them  Lassen,  Risbrich,  and  Villemoes — fought 
their  ships  against  larger  vessels  as  long  as  the  shattered  hulks 
remained  afloat. 

The  death  of  the  Emperor  Paul,  and  the  new  alliance  made 
by  his  son  and  successor.  Alexander,  with  England,  put  an  end  to 
the  comi)act  of  armed  neutrality  which  had  given  rise  to  this  un- 
fortunate war.  Denmark  now  enjoyed  a  few  years  of  peace,  and 
her  trade,  b(jth  in  the  Xew  and  Old  World,  rose  to  a  degree  of 
activity  which  it  had  ne\'er  before  attained.  The  Danes  were,  in 
fact,  the  great  trading  agents  for  all  the  other  countries  of  Europe, 
which  were  all  more  or  less  engaged  in  war  with  h'rancc.  This 
prosperous  condition  of  affairs  was,  however,  rudely  disturbed,  in 
1807,  ^vhen  the  English  governmciit.  believing  that  Denmark  had 
entered  into  a  treaty  with  X'apoleon  and  the  lunperor  Alexander 
of  Russia,  now  X'apoleon's  ally,  or  at  least  fearing  that  the  Danish 
monarch  would  be  compelled  to  follow  the  dictates  of  tlicsc  two 
autocrats,  sent  fifty-four  ships  of  war,  under  Admiral  Gami)icr, 
to  demand  the  immediate  delivery  of  the  Danish  fleet  intci  English 
safekeeping,  in  order  to  prevent  its  use  in  the  cause  of  the  French 
emperor.  Tlie  demand  came  inopportunely  for  the  Danes,  as  the 
royal  family  and  nearly  all  the  Danish  army  Avere  in  tlolstcin, 
where  the  crown  prince  had  reason  to  fear  that  an  attack  was  de- 
'^igncd  from  the  fiermc'in  frontier.  Copenhagen  was  thus  left  in 
an  unprotected  state.  W'licn  the  commandant  of  tlie  city,  ricneral 
I'cymann,  refused  to  cnm])lv  Avith  the  demands  o^  the  f-jigh":di 
admiral,  33,000  men  v^•cre  landed,  under  General  Cathcart.  and  the 
town  formallv  att.'icked  by  lan.d  :\u<\  sea.  A  crncl  Ixmibardmcnt  of 
three  days  Icxclcd  1 '"^'oo  hon>cs,  laid  a  large  iKulion  of  tlie  cit}'  in 
a-lu'-,  and  at  last  fnr/ed  General  Pex-mann  to  admit  the  I-aiglish 
tro(.])s  int'j  tlie  citadel  of  I-'rederik'shav-n.  The  result  of  this  attack', 
\\!ii(di  the  Danes  lool^ed  njion  a>  a  Avrmion  act  of  piracv,  nnworthv 
a  ,';'re;it  na\-al  jiower.  a\:!s  tlie  seixnix'  b\'  tlie  l>rilish  of  iS  >hi]is  of 
'lie  line,  ji    fi  i'.r;'ic-,  ^  l)i-i':^-.  and  j^  c'liiboats.  besides  an  immense 


P  O  L  I  T  I  ('  A  L     H  i:  V  O  L  f^  T  I  0  N  257 

1808-1613 

amount  of  naval  stores  of  every  kind.  Danish  naval  power  was 
crushed  by  the  blow,  and  a  generation  passed  away  before  the  fatal 
wrong  to  which  the  nation  had  been  subjected  was  forgiven. 

On  the  night  of  Alarch  13,  1808,  Christian  VIL's  useless  life 
came  to  a  close,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  and  regent  as 
Frederick  VI.  WHiatever  may  have  been  the  new  monarch's  esti- 
mate of  the  situation,  public  sentiment  speedily  compelled  him 
to  ally  himself  with  Napoleon.  But  the  remedy  was  worse  than 
the  disease.  Danish  trading  ships  were  nowhere  safe  from  the 
attack  of  British  men-of-war.  It  is  estimated  that  before  the 
restoration  of  peace  upward  of  1200  Danish  merchantmen,  valued, 
together  with  their  cargoes,  at  30,000,000  rix  dollars,  had  been 
conliscated.  On  the  pretense  of  supporting  Denmark  against  an 
invasion  by  the  Swedes,  and  aiding  her  in  recovering  her  old  Swed- 
ish provinces.  Napoleon  sent  an  army  of  30,000  men,  under  Gen- 
eral Bernadotte  (Prince  of  Ponte  Corvo),  into  Slesvig-Holstein, 
where  they  remained  over  a  year  without  striking  a  single  blow  in 
Denmark's  behalf.  The  cost  and  disturbance  which  the  presence 
of  such  a  body  of  foreign  soldiery  necessarily  occasioned  were 
greatly  aggravated  by  their  want  of  discipline  and  the  discontent 
of  the  men  themselves.  Among  them  were  14,000  Spaniards,  un- 
der the  command  of  the  Alarquis  de  la  Romana,  who,  during  the 
whole  of  his  sta)-  in  the  Danish  peninsula,  was  engaged  in  in- 
trigues to  escape  from  the  service  of  the  French  emperor  and 
unite  with  the  English.  When  the  news  arrived  that  Napoleon 
had  deposed  the  King  of  Spain  and  placed  his  brother  Joseph  on 
the  throne  of  that  countr)-,  the  long-brooding  discontent  of  the 
Spanish  troops  broke  into  open  rebellion,  and  the  country  was 
soon  afterward  called  upon  to  witness  a  civil  war  among  its  self- 
appointed  defenders.  A  squadron  of  English  ships,  which  had 
been  sent  to  cooperate  with  the  Spanish  detachment  in  the  Danish 
provinces,  succeeded  in  taking  large  numbers  on  board  from  Jut- 
land and  the  Island  of  Langeland,  wliile  the  few  regiments  which 
were  unable  to  escape  were  disarmed  by  the  Danes  and  kept  as 
prisoners  of  war.  Bernadotte  withdrew  his  forces,  thereby  per- 
mitting the  English  to  pounce  upon  i\nhalt  and  so  secure  control 
(jf  the  passage  between  Denmark  and  Norway.  At  the  same  time 
the  government  of  In-ederick  VL  formed  the  desperate  resolution 
of  meeting  the  heavy  debts  wliich  they  had  incurred  in  this  unfor- 
tun;ite   war  by   issuing    14-'   millions  of  paper  notes,    which   were 


258  SCANDINAVIA 

1813-1818 

Speedily  circulated  at  one-sixth  of  their  face  value.  This  measure 
undoubtedly  averted  the  bankrnj)tcy  tliat  seemed  inevitable,  but  it 
ruined  the  chief  trading-  and  banking-  liouses  in  Denmark,  and 
created  the  acutest  distress  in  a]m(i>l  ex'ory  rank  of  the  |)0])ulatit)n. 
The  Danisli  Idng's  policy  was  throughout  weak  and  vacillating-. 
After  a  series  of  humiliations  and  disappointments  lie  found  him- 
self compelled,  in  1814,  to  agree  to  the  Peace  of  Kiel.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  terms  of  this  treatv.  as  was  above  noted,  Denmark 
was  forced  to  give  Norway  to  Sweden,  and  to  acce])t  in  exchange 
Swedish  Pomerania  and  Ivygen,  which,  however,  were  at  once 
ceded  to  Prussia  in  return  for  Pruicnburg  and  the  payment  of  two 
millions  f;f  rix  drjllars.  England  rcfjuircd  for  herself  the  cession 
of  Helig(;land,  to  secure  the  command  of  the  I'^lbe ;  and,  thus 
bereft  of  all  lier  most  valual)le  points  of  defense,  Denmark  was 
forced  in  join  tlie  allies,  r^inrdlv  T^'redcrick  was  compelled  to  seek 
admission  to  the  Congress  of  \^ienna,  not  as  an  independent 
sovereign,  but  as  a  member  of  tlie  fierman  confederation  in  his 
capacity  as  duke  of  ]b)lstcin  tUid  Lauenburg. 

The  years  succeeding  the  Congress  (jf  X'ienna^  were  for  Scan- 
dinavia, as  for  the  rest  of  Ein"0])e,  years  r)f  material  rccui)eration, 
and  (jf  jjoliticrd  de\'elopment,  under  the  inlluence  of  tlie  dogmas 
of  the  revrjlution.  In  I'SiS  Bernadotte  ascended  the  Swedish 
thrf^ne  as  Charles  XIV.,  or,  as  his  subjects  designated  him,  Karl 
Johan.  In  his  earlier  days  Pcrnadotte  IkuI  been  a  fierce  republican, 
\"ociferatin.g-  his  theories  to  the  \-er\'  face  of  Na.])oleiin,  wliose 
coronation  as  emperor  his  scruples  would  Uiot  permit  him  to  attend. 
Indeed,  the  stor}'  is  told  that,  long-  years  after  he  1)ecame  a  mon- 
arch himself,  his  cor.rt  ph\-sician  found  the  words  "  .1  Ixis  Irs  Rois  " 
and  "  Jlz'c  la  Rrpubliijiic  "  tattoed  o-n  tlie  arm  of  his  dislinguished 
])atient.  Such  sentiments  v.ere,  lio\vc\-er,  no  longei  represeniatix-e 
of  the  burgher-king's  cfuivictions.  k'rom  \ear  to  year  his  recollec- 
tion of  ihe  cxce--es  ()f  the  I'rench  l\c\-olution  iiicrea-cd  in  \i\idncss, 
his  distru-t  of  ])r)])ular  enthusiasms  becrune  accenluated,  his  dis- 
inclination to  favor  .any  extension  of  ])()liiic;il  Ireedoni  became 
more  ])i"onounced.  1'oo  large  a  ])art  of  his  career  b.ad  bi  mi  >^])ent 
in  the  role  of  a  commander  of  coliorts,  \\"h(,'>c  word  w;i^  l,iw,  lo 
achnit  now  of  aii\'  toleration  I'U  his  ])art  of  interlerence  with  In-. 
administrati'ju.      lie  con-uhed  his  CT.ncil,   indeed,   but    for  ad\ice, 

■•/■),/,•  ].:i\]~r  :;:,,1  t; mi;!  ai:<!  :  -liisliirr  ( Jnirnil,  ."  oi  X.  p;).  ('>7-~('"i-:- 
A]-<>  SciLMioh'.- :  "  I'olilical  lli-t(jryof  J-'.i;ri  pc  since  1814,"  ch.  XVJlf.  (  .Macvaiu-'s 
Iraii-lalionJ. 


POLITICAL     REVOLUTION  259 

1818-1843 

not  direction.  Even  the  word  of  his  influential  favorite,  Magnus 
Brahe,  was  not  preponderant. 

Nevertheless,  in  a  country  where  the  aristocracy  was  as  strong 
as  it  was  in  Sweden  in  1818,  where  nine  years  before  it  had  suc- 
ceeded in  transforming  the  absolute  despotism  into  a  limited  mon- 
archy, the  royal  will  was  not  allowed  to  work  itself  out  entirely 
without  let  or  hindrance,  now  that  peace  had  succeeded  war,  and 
opposition  could  again  assert  itself  without  peril  to  the  state.  By 
1818  the  strict  legitimist  party,  that  had  at  first  opposed  the  notion 
of  a  French  dynasty,  had  entirely  vanished  before  the  evidences 
that  the  adopted  prince  royal  had  given  of  his  great  capacity  and  of 
his  fidelity  to  Sweden.  The  opposition  that  met  Karl  Johan  in 
the  diet  of  1818  and  1823  was,  on  the  contrary,  a  liberal  opposi- 
tion, whose  platform  was  the  supersession  of  the  antiquated  estates 
by  a  representative  parliament  similar  to  that  of  France  and  Eng- 
land, and  the  transformation  of  the  council  of  state  into  a  respon- 
sible ministry.  The  re\-olutionary  enthusiasm  of  1830  greatly 
strengthened  the  Swedish  o])position,  which  now  spread  beyond 
the  legislative  chambers  and  began  to  use  the  public  press.  A  cer- 
tain Crusentolpe  attackecl  tlie  government  with  audacity  and  viru- 
lence. .-Vnother  journalist,  Hierta  by  name,  founded  the  Afton- 
hladct  and  dewoted  its  pages  entirely  to  political  agitation.  Karl 
Johan  suppressed  tlie  obstreperous  sh.eets  and  prosecuted  their  mu- 
tinous editors  relentlessly.  Tlie  agitation  grew  none  the  less,  and 
Karl  Johan,  however  obstinate,  knew  wlien  to  yield  as  well  as  when 
to  fight.  In  1840  lie  gave  his  sanction  t(5  an  act  of  the  diet  reor- 
ganizing the  council  of  state  into  a  departmental  ministry,  such  as 
had  Ijecn  established  in  Denmark,  nearly  two  centuries  before, 
under  Frederick  II L  1,'ndcr  the  new  arrangement,  which  still 
obtains,  tlicre  are  seven  services — foreign  affairs,  navy,  defense, 
finance,  justice,  education,  and  interior — cacli  in  charge  of  a  min- 
ister. Decisions  are  made  by  ihe  ministry  ;is  a  body,  then  receive 
the  royal  sanction,  and  finally  the  signature  of  the  head  of  the 
particular  department  to  wliich  tJie  subject  nnritter  falls. 

Despite  the  frequently  outrageous  character  of  the  opposition, 
his  own  alien  birth,  ]'i>  ign(Vi-;mce  of  In's  subjects'  language,  and  his 
h.orror  of  clic'ingc,  Karl  Jolian  cclel)ratc(l  the  twenty-fifth  anniver- 
sary of  his  acce-.if.n  to  the  Sv^cdi.-li  tln'one  on  l"el)ruary  5,  1843, 
amid  manv  evidences  (;f  general  rcg;ird.  'i'lie  political  agitators, 
knowing  that  his  reign  Vw'is  now  near  its  close,  and  hoping  for  much 


260  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1818-1844 

from  the  liberality  of  his  heir's  sentiments,  were  content  to  abide 
their  time.  In  ]\Iarch,  1844,  Karl  Johan  died.  In  the  days  of  his 
soldiering-  for  France  he  had  married  Desiree  Clary,  the  bewitchint^ 
daughter  of  a  Marseilles  silk  merchant,  and  once  the  betrothed  of 
the  great  Bonaparte  himself.  By  the  marriage  there  was  one  son, 
who  now  ascended  the  throne  as  Oscar  I. 

Karl  Johan's  rule  was  a  period  of  great  internal  development 
for  Sweden.  Industry,  agriculture,  and  commerce,  reviving,  at- 
tained dimensions  hitherto  unknown.  Between  1821  and  1840  the 
customs  receipts  more  than  doubled.  Roads,  bridges,  and  canals, 
the  greatest  of  which  was  the  famous  Gothia  Canal,  connecting  the 
North  and  Baltic  Seas,  and  completed  in  1832.  rendered  the  coun- 
try accessible  in  everv  (juarter.  The  employment  of  steam  as- 
sisted the  process,  thrmgh  it  was  not  till  the  next  reign  that  the 
era  of  railroad  building  seriously  began.  Public  education  w^as 
greatly  expanded.  Already  in  i8ti  an  agricultural  college  had 
been  founded;  in  1821  a  school  of  mines  was  established;  the  law 
of  1842  inaugurated  the  national  system  of  i)arochial  schools  and 
brought  elementary  education  within  the  reach  of  all  orders.  Cer- 
tain reforms  were  made  despite  royal  opposition,  such  as  the  estab- 
lishment of  new  tribunals  and  the  improvement  of  the  prison 
system.  Tn  otlier  wa}-s,  however,  as.  for  instance,  by  the  riiainte- 
nance  of  the  alliance  with  Russia  and  ]Deace  with  Europe,  and  by 
the  negotiation  of  numerous  commercial  treaties,  the  king  and  his 
ministers  actively  aided  the  general  development. 

For  more  than  four  hundred  years  Norway  had  been  united 
with  Denmark,  spoken  the  same  language  and  read  the  same  lit- 
erature ;  that  she  should  resist  transference  to  Sweden,  an  alien 
])Ower,  was  naturrd.  The  recently  revi\cd  sentiment  of  patriotism, 
howexer,  wliicli  in  1810  had  found  expression  in  the  formation 
of  a  "  Society  for  tlie  Promotion  of  Norwegian  Interests,"  and  in 
snbscri])tions  for  a  Norwegian  university,  transformed  the  resist- 
ance into  an  effort  to  raise  Norway  once  more  to  the  station  of  .'ui 
inrlependent  nation,  rather  than  sim])l\-  to  maintain  tlic  Danisli 
cormection.  The  Danish  viceroy.  Prince  Christian  I-'rederick,  at 
once  identined  liimsclf  with  the  ])atriotic  cause.  Convoking  a 
diet  of  elected  representatives  and  officeholders  at  Eidsvold,  he 
was  elected  king  (jf  Norway  by  that  body.  May  \y,  1814.  The 
diet,  at  the  <anic  time,  adopted  a  constitution  modeled  on  the 
1^'rench  con-^tilulion  of   1 -(j  1 .  wln'cli  asserted  the  sovcreigntv  of  the 


POLITICAL     REVOLUTION  261 

1814 

people  and  their  right  to  govern  themsch-es  through  an  elective 
and  non-dissoluble  assembly.  The  Norwegian  forces  were  at  first 
successful,  but  they  could  not  long  cope  with  a  commander  like 
Bernadotte,  backed  as  he  was  by  the  mandate  of  lun-ope  and  the 
British  fleet.  The  Swedish  army  occupied  southern  Norway,  while 
the  Swedish  fleet  blockaded  the  coast.  Before  the  close  of  1814 
Christian  Frederick  departed  the  country  and  Charles  XITT.  was 
proclaimed  joint  ruler  of  Sweden  and  Norway.  The  Norwegian 
cause  was  not  entirely  forfeited,  however.  By  the  generous  terms 
of  the  convention  of  ]\Ioss  of  x\ugust,  1814,  and  tlie  subsequent 
Act  of  Union  of  August,  181 5,  Norway  was.  in  all  respects  save 
her  union  with  Sweden,  through  the  person  of  the  latter  ccamtrv's 
monarch,  recognized  as  an  independent  sovereign  nation.  She 
was  to  retain  her  ancient  institutions  and  her  recent  constitution  at 
pleasure;  to  have,  therefore,  her  own  legislative  assembly  or  stor- 
thing, which,  moreover,  the  king  was  to  have  no  power  to  dissolve; 
to  have  ministers  of  her  own  appointed  b}-  the  king,  except  in  war 
and  diplomacy;  to  levy  her  own  taxes,  control  her  own  schools, 
create  her  own  municipalities;  any  bill  passed  by  the  stortliing. 
three  times  in  succession,  at  intervals  of  three  years,  was  to  become 
law  without  the  royal  sanction ;  no  Swede  was  to  hold  official  ])osi- 
tion  in  Norway  except  that  of  viceroy.  Finally,  so  entirely  was 
the  idea  of  the  two  nations  as  distinct  political  entities  pushed,  that 
Swedes  were  to  be  foreigners  in  Norway,  and  vice  versa. 

Nevertheless,  despite  the  liberality  of  these  terms,  the  "  Nor- 
wegian Question  " — the  question  of  Norway's  status  as  a  nation — 
was  sure  to  arise.  In  the  first  place,  Swedes  and  Norwegians 
viewed  the  Act  of  Union  from  diametrically  opposed  points  of  view. 
To  the  former  it  was  the  evidence  of  their  ovn'u  generosity  to  a  con- 
quered people,  and  was  so  represented  even  in  the  Swedisli  text- 
books; to  the  latter  it  was  the  contract  of  voluntary  union  between 
two  independent  states  who  had  elected  to  liave  tlie  same  monarcli. 
In  the  second  place,  Bernadotte's  sincerity  in  granting  such  lil)cral 
terms  to  Norway  is  open  to  question.  In  1814  tlic  legitimists  were 
still  strong  in  Sweden,  and  the  prince  royal  was  by  no  means  cer- 
tain of  his  future.  It  might  be  well  then — he  doubtless  reflected — ■ 
to  take  some  thought  of  the  morrow,  not  to  bind  Norway  to 
Sweden  too  irretrievably.  A  country  of  refuge  might  prove  a  am- 
venient  shelter  in  the  days  to  come.  At  an}-  rate  Bernadotte's  soft- 
ness was  repented  of  Ijy  Karl  jfilian,  who.  at  tlic  ver\-  outset,  <\c- 


262  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  V  I  A 

1833-1838 

manded  amendments  to  the  Act  of  Union — now  an  organic  part  of 
the  Norwegian  constitution — whicli  would  give  him  the  right  of 
veto,  the  power  of  dissohition.  and  the  appointment  of  numerous 
officers.  Of  course  these  were  rejected  by  tlie  stortliing.  In  1833 
the  character  of  the  storthing  \vas  considerably  changed  by  the 
entrance  of  peasant  rei)re5cntatives — it  had  hitherto  been  largely 
bureaucratic  in  makeup — and  by  the  formation  of  an  avowedly 
patriotic  party,  under  the  leadership  of  the  ])oet  W'ergcland.  By 
three  succe?si\-e  votes  the  nobility  that  Karl  Johan  had  sought  to 
create  in  his  interest  was  abolished.  Tn  1836  Karl  Johan  actually 
issued  an  order  dissoK'ing  the  storthing:  the  storthing  retorted 
by  impeacliing  the  mini^tiw;  the  ])rudcnt  monarch  not  only  yielded 
in  the  matter  at  issue,  but  sup])lanted  his  Swedish  viceroy  with  a 
Norwegian.  Already,  more  than  a  year  before,  he  had  admitted 
the  Norwegian  miin'stcr  of  state  at  Stcjckholm  to  participation  in 
the  discussion  of  foreign  affairs  in  tlic  Swedish  ministerial  coun- 
cil: and  in  1838  accorded  Norwegian  merchantmen  the  right  to 
carry  the  fljig  which  the  storthing  had  devised  for  Norway,  in 
1 82 1,  into  all  seas. 

The  years  succeeding  the  union  were  the  most  prosperous  that 
Norway  had  ever  known.  The  close  of  th.e  period  of  war  and  the 
withdrawal  of  Danish  officialdom  left  the  nation  a  community  of 
I)easants,  the  completest  democracv  in  the  world,  but  also  much  im- 
po\-erishcd.  Nfjrway's  climate  does  not  permit  a  profitable  pur- 
suit of  agriculture  for  more  than  a  short  season  each  year.  ^Fo 
su]:)])lement  it  there  are  fishing,  lumbering.  shi]:)building,  and  C(jm- 
merce.  These  industries  had  l)cen  swcj:)t  away  in  the  course  r>f  the 
struggle  with  Napoleon.  Karl  Johan's  government  immediately 
tor)k  a  hand  in  effecting  an  industrird  and  commercial  re\'i\-al  in 
iItc  povcrt\'-strickcn  land.  Tn  t8t8  an  industrird  schotil  A\-as 
founded  at  C'liristiania.  Norway  shared  with  Sweden,  of  course, 
tlie  bcnent  of  tlic  nnmcrotis  commercial  treaties  to  which  reference 
has  been  ni.ade.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years  Norway  c:une  to 
own  a  qn:M"U-r  of  ihc'  merchant  marine  f»f  Europe.  The  number  of 
landowner-  incri^i^ed  between  the  vears  1814  and.  1835  from 
45,r)r)0  t'l  105,000.  Shiortlv  after  the  close  of  the  \\:\v  a  bank  of 
Xorw<'i\-  \\;,-  t -talKidied,  the  paid-u])  ra])ital  of  wliich  wa-^  ])rocured 
by  tax.-.li'  n.  Tlii-  led  to  a  rising  in  1S18,  which,  however,  was 
soon  ])ni  d'lwii.  'i  he  refonn,  togclhcr  with  the  reduction  of  tlie 
a--iii\   to  onrdiali.  and  bountiful  har\e>ts,  S(j(jn  broiiijiit  i)rospcritv. 


POLITICAL     REVOLUTION  263 

1818-1838 

The  public  debt,  which  was  very  large  in  1815,  was  entirely  liqui- 
dated by  1850. 

In  Denmark  the  establishment,  in  iSiS,  of  a  national  bank, 
wholly  independent  of  the  state,  was  the  first  step  toward  a  better 
condition  in  the  monetary  system.  By  degrees  trade  and  confi- 
dence in  the  resources  of  the  country  revived,  and  a  proper  and  fair 
proportion  of  silver  money  came  to  replace  the  former  worthless 
paper  notes  of  the  government.  The  more  prosperous  condition 
of  the  people  soon  led  them  to  interest  themselves  in  the  manage- 
ment of  public  affairs.  So  decided  a  character  had  this  newly 
awakened  feeling  assumed  by  the  time  of  the  revolutionary  move- 
ments of  1830,  that  King  Frederick,  to  avert  any  untoward  results, 
but  entirely  in  opposition  to  his  ov\'n  consen-ative  principles,  pro- 
claimed the  establishment  of  consultative  chambers  in  the  spring 
of  1831.  The  nation  seized  with  eagerness  upon  this  opportunity 
of  asserting  their  rights,  and  poured  forth  their  gratitude  to  the 
king  in  the  most  enthusiastic  manner.  The  same  year  the  new 
assemblies  were  opened:  one  for  the  islands  at  Roeskilde,  one  for 
Jutland  at  Viborg",  one  for  Slesvig"  in  the  town  of  Sles\'ig,  and  one 
for  Holstein  at  Itzehoe.  To  these  chambers  were  to  be  submitted 
for  consideration  and  approval  all  lavs  affecting  the  personal  con- 
dition of  the  citizens  of  the  respective  provinces,  and  all  projects 
of  taxation.  The  finances  of  tlie  kingdom  became  the  first  object 
of  consideration  for  the  new  chambers.  These  bodies,  not  satisfied 
with  the  amount  of  information  accorded  them  on  tlie  subject  of 
the  disposal  of  the  revenue,  petitioned  the  king  for  leave  to  appoint 
a  committee  of  inquiry  into  the  working  of  the  financial  depart- 
ments of  the  government.  But  Frederick  had  apparently  repented 
of  his  easy  compliance  with  liberalism,  and  tlie  demand  was  vetoed, 
In  the  meanwhile  tlie  question  of  the  freedom  of  the  press  liad 
begun  to  excite  the  minds  of  men  of  all  ch'isses.  The  king  and  his 
chief  friends,  taking  speedy  alarm  at  the  free  discussion  of  ])n1)lic 
matters,  which  now,  for  the  first  time,  filled  the  ]);ipers,  and  unal^Ie 
the  rescind  the  rights  of  free  speech  granted  to  tlie  memljcrs  of  the 
different  chambers,  determined  to  im])i)sc  restrictions  on  the  press. 
The  first  decisive  step  taken  by  th.e  government  was  to  interdict  tlie 
further  publication  of  Focdrclaiu/ct,  a  weekly  ])ai)er,  conducted  l)y 
the  learned  C.  X.  David,  professor  of  ])olilic;d  economy  in  tlie 
University  of  Ccjpenhagen.  Dr.  David  was  Ijronglit  before  tlic 
law  courts  on  tlie  cliaru'e  of  seditious  writing,  but  to  the  universal 


264  S  C  A  X  1)  J  N  A  \  I  A 

1838-1844 

jtiy  ui  the  liberal  party,  and  to  llie  extreme  annoyance  of  the  gov- 
ernment, which  deprived  him,  in  the  following  year  (1S36),  of 
his  chair,  was  acquitted. 

In  the  midst  of  a  ttu'moil  of  strong  political  feeling  Frederick 
VI.  died,  in  1839,  after  a  rule  of  fifty-five  years,  leaving  behind  the 
memory  of  a  well-meaning  Ijut  feeble  ruler,  whose  thoroughly 
patriotic  love  of  his  country  and  his  people  made  him  personally 
dear  to  all  classes  of  his  subjects,  despite  tl"re  many  blunders  and 
shortcomings  of  his  administration. 

The  years  18 14  and  1844  mark  the  birth  time  and  the  coming 
to  maturity  of  a  new  generation  of  Scandinavians,  who  never  par- 
ticipated in  the  slaughter  of  brother  Scandinavians,  who  never  wit- 
nessed a  war  of  Swedes  against  Danes  or  of  either  against  Xor- 
wegians.  Old  jealousies  waned:  old  rivalries  relaxed;  the  fraternal 
feud  that  had  endured  Sd  manv  centuries  came  to  an  end,  su]v 
l)lanted  by  a  feeling  of  patriotism  to  all  Scandinavia.  The  mon- 
archs  them.'^fh-es.  espcciallv  Karl  Johan  and  0<car  1.,  greailv  aided 
the  gr. AN'th  of  this  new  sentiment  bv  encouraging  Scandinavian 
congres-c>  ua-  the  C(;nsideration  f)f  scientific,  literary,  and  other 
interests,  and  by  urging  exchanges  of  courtesies  by  the  universities 
and  cr)lleges  of  the  th.ree  n;iti(jns.  .Vt  the  time  of  the  Crimean 
A\'ar  Prince  Oscar  hoisted  his  admiral's  flag  over  the  first  allied 
fleet  of  Swedish.  ]')anish.  and  Norwegian  vessels  that  had  ritlden 
the  seas  since  the  days  of  the  \'iking-.  At  the  close  of  th.e  war.  in 
con-e(juence  <jf  the  ])ersonal  friendship  of  Oscar  and  I'redcrick 
\TI..  a  dcfensi\-e  alli.'mce  was  entered  into  between  Sweden  and 
Denmark,  tlie  a\-r)\\cd  ])ur])ose  of  which  was  to  make  a  Scandi- 
na\'ian  war  thencefiirtli  im])(.)ssible.  In  h'rederick's  ensuing  strug- 
gle with  h]<  SIes\-ig-[  lo]>tcin  subjccf^.  Oscar.  ;is  we  shall  see.  sent 
troops  1')  liie  a<si<tance  "i  ]]'i<  ro}-al  i)ri)ther  and  ga\'e  his  cordial  a.])- 


])ro\;d  1' 1  tlic  enli<lment  of  S\\e(li:-h  \olunteers  for  the  Dani>ii 
-er\icc.  To  tin's  sentiment  o\  ]~'an-.Scandina\-iam"sm — if  so  it  may 
be  called — i>  to  be  ret"erred  in  ])art  the  great  literarv  outburst  of  this 
])eriod.  In  .'^weden.  Tegncr,  Slagnelius,  and  Runeberg  (the  latter 
bum  111  !•  inland  but  .Sweden's  greatest  poet),  t'ound  their  themes  in 
ancient  Xi.r-c  lii.^iory;  Oehlenschl;iger,  the  I'ounder  nf  the  Dani>li 
drama,  had  rcconr-e  to  the  same  fountain  of  insijirati' in ;  also 
\\  ergrland  and  \\'clha\-en  in  Xorway.  In  the>e  same  }e;irs  Deijer 
wV'lv  lii-t'ir)  ;  |-<,_oell)(.]-o-  wrought  his  sculpture;  and  lierzelius.  the 
chemi-',  -inod  at  ilie  -ummit  of  scientific  eminence   in   ITu'ope. 


Chapter    XX 

SLESVIG-HOLSTEIN.      1839-1885 

FREDERICK  VL,  leaving  no  male  lieir,  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin,  under  the  title  of  Christian  VTII.  1'hc  acces- 
sion of  this  prince  to  the  throne  \\as  hailed  with  joy  l)v 
the  entire  Danish  nation,  who  believed  tliat  in  hitn  tlicy  would 
find  a  ruler  of  liberal  and  advanced  views.  Tlieir  expecta- 
tions were,  however,  only  partially  realized.  For  altlioui^h  King 
Christian  was  a  man  of  talent,  of  literary  aptitudes,  of  erudi- 
tion, and  was  well  informed  in  all  the  political  (luestions  of  the 
day.  he  yet  displayed  from  the  moment  of  his  accession  a 
resolute  determination  to  stand  by  the  ancient  prerogative  of  the 
crown,  and  a  most  disheartening  reluctance  to  ])ledge  himself  to 
measures  of  reform.  Despite  the  fact  that  Cliristian  effected  many 
improvements  in  the  government,  reduced  the  national  (lel)t  froni 
124  to  104  millions  rix  dollars,  encouraged  the  promotion  of  learn- 
ing and  extension  of  schools,  and  impressed  a  new  and  mf;rc 
enlightened  spirit  upon  the  public  institutions  of  the  country,  tlic 
people  remained  dissatisfied,  the  press,  in  defiance  of  restriction  ruid 
severe  penalties,  gave  circulation  to  works  ot  a  violent  char;icter. 
and  the  relations  bet\veen  the  monarcli  and  the  legislati\'e  cham- 
bers became  yearly  more  and  more  impossiiile. 

The  most  important  cause  of  ]~)anisli  dissatisfaction  with  Chri:;- 
tian  was  afforded  by  his  vacillating,  and — from  the  Danish  stand- 
point— unpatri()tic,  course  in  the  vS]es\-ig-i{olstein  matter.  The 
Holy  Roman  empire  had  come  to  an  cud  in  i8;)h.  l)ut  the  (ier- 
manic  confederation  of  J815  \\';is  heir  to  its  ])retensions,  or  rather, 
to  its  right  to  make  ])retensions.  The  position  ()f  ilolstein  as  a 
member  of  the  confeder.'ition  ^\■as.  ho\\(.'\-er.  ])lain.  Tt  had  nc\-cr 
been  united  to  E)enmark  Iw  more  than  i)crsonal  union. -and  tlu;n  a^ 
a  separate  fief  from  the  empire.  AbircMner.  >!nce  th.e  Srdic  l;i\\ 
had  ceased  to  regulate  succession  to  the  I)ani.di  throne  in  llie  tinio 
oi  Frederick  III.,  wdn'le  it  continued  to  regulates  i!ie  succc->-ion  i:i 
certain  districts  of  Jiolstcin,  the  line  of  personal   connection    w:;- 


266  S  C  A  X  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1157-1460 

liable  to  be  dissevered  at  any  moment  with  respect  to  those  dis- 
tricts. 

The  case  of  Slesvic^  and  the  rest  of  Holstein.  on  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  \vell  to  review.  It  will  be  recalled  that,  in  the  reign 
of  Xiels,  Knnd  Illaford  took  possession  of  Slesvig".  and  that  when 
Knud  himself  became  king",  his  son.  Valdemar,  became  first  dnke 
of  Slesvig-.  W'ddemar's  accession,  in  1157,  united  the  duchy  tem- 
porarily to  the  kingdom,  but  Knud  \'I.  ag;iin  detached  it  for  his 
son,  A'aldemar,  whose  accessicni  to  the  Danish  throne  again  effected 
a  brief  union  of  the  duchy  and  the  kingd'uu.  In  12 18,  however, 
\'al(lcmar  handed  over  the  duchy  to  Erik  as  did  Erik  to  Abel 
in  1232.  Abel's  usuriiation,  in  1250.  brought  about  a  third  reunion 
of  the  realm,  but  for  only  four  years.  For  when,  at  Abel's  death, 
his  brother,  Christ(vpher.  came  to  the  throne,  his  son,  Valdemar,  be- 
came (hike  of  Slesvig  and  founrled  a  line  that  endured  till  1375. 
'Jdie  Constitntio  J'aldcinariana  of  1326  had,  in  the  meantime,  guar- 
anteed th.e  divorce  of  the  duchy  and  the  realm;  so  that,  at  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  \'aldcmarian  family,  Slesvig'.  instead  of  escheating 
to  the  crown,  was  allowed  to  jxass  to  Count  Gerhard  \l.  of  Hol- 
stein in,  August  15,  138*^) — llie  origin  of  Slesvig-1  lolstcin.  This, 
however,  was  the  mr)mcnt  of  tlie  L'nion  of  Calmar.  E.rik  of 
Pomerania's  more  ambitious  rmd  capable  successors  were  u.nwilling 
to  see  their  alriKst  imperial  dominion  clipped  in  any  direction.  Ac- 
cordingly. Cicrh.ard's  s(.)n  and  successor,  Adolf  VII.  of  Holstein, 
had  to  fight  Denmark  thirty  years  before  he  was  invested  witli 
Slesvig.  Hardly  had  he  triumphed  wlien  he  Irimsclf  was  offered 
the  Danisli  crown.  It  will  be  remembered  tliat  he  declined  tiie 
offer,  ijut  nominated  his  nc])]iew  and  jiresumptive  heir,  CTirisiian 
(if  Oldenburg,  for  tlie  h.onor.  Christian  became  king  of  Denmark 
in  1448,  a'Kl  twe]\'e  \-ears  k'lter,  upon  tlie  death  o\  his  uaicle,  was 
cho.-cn  dul;e  of  Slesvig  and  count  of  Holstein  by  the  c-tatc,-^  at  Ribe. 

We  now  come  upon  a  document  of  great  iinporl;Mice  from  tlie 
standpoint  of  some  subserpient  history.  Christian  I.  swore  tat  Kibe 
to  maintain  \u  ])er])etm't\-  tlie  miion  and  indi\idnality  of  the  country 
and  tlie  (!uc:i\-,  and  to  conserve  their  respectixe  hbcriies.  lA'ci-y 
}"ear  a  diot  wa-  to  be  conx'ened  at  !')ornh("i\  ed  for  Mol-'ein,  and 
another,  ho"  .'^k'sxig,  at  Crnelio\'ed.  The  consent  of  t!iese  bodies 
was  to  lie  -'ii!glit  to  ;ill  imi)o-ts  and  all  declar.'ition'^  of  war.  Jn  the 
ab-ence  oi  i!n;  kin;.;",  llic  ;!dinini>tralion  of  the  two  ri';.;ions  was  to 
lall  lo  a  conlmi.-^^ion  of  twelve,  consisting  of  the  ])i.--!iop,->  (,1  Lubcck 


S  L  E  S  V  I  G  -  H  O  I.  S  T  E  I  N  267 

1460-1806 

and  Holstein  and  ten  delegates.  Just  396  vears  later,  and  in  the 
very  midst  of  the  struggle  which  we  arc  here  chronicling,  Dahl- 
mann,  the  eminent  German  historian,  whose  "  History  of  Den- 
mark "  we  have  cited  on  numerous  occasions,  discovered,  in 
the  course  of  his  researches  at  Preetz,  the  original  draft  of  Chris- 
tian I.'s  long- forgotten  pact.  Immediately  the  document  was  seized 
upon  by  the  pro-German  party  of  south  Slesvig  and  heralded 
abroad  as  the  unalterable  charter  of  "  German  liberties  "  in  the 
duchies.  It  was  argued  that  inasmuch  as  Holstein  was  admittedly 
not  an  integral  part  of  the  Danish  realm,  then  neither  was  Sles- 
vig; that  since  Holstein  was  a  member  of  the  German  confedera- 
tion, then  so  should  Slesvig  be  rightfully;  that  since  the  Salic  rule 
of  succession  still  held  for  Holstein,  so  also  it  should  for  Slesvig. 

To  say  the  least,  this  argument  ignored  a  good  deal  of  inter- 
vening history.  In  1544  there  took  place  between  the  sons  of 
Frederick  I.  a  division  of  the  possessions  of  the  house  of  Olden- 
burg. Christian  III.  founded  a  line  of  Danish  kings:  Adolph  I. 
founded  the  line  of  Gottorp.  In  i5cSi  a  second  partition  was  made 
by  the  two  branclies  of  the  house  of  Oldenburg:  that  of  IHensburg 
(August  15,  1581).  By  this  treaty,  Slesvig  and  Holstein  hotli 
fell  to  the  Gottorp  prince,  but  Slesvig  remained  a  Danish  fief,  while 
Holstein  remained  a  German.  It  is  true  that  l^rederick  III.,  third 
of  the  line  of  Gottorp  dukes,  WTung-  a  recognition  of  his  sovereignt)- 
in  Slesvig  from  Denmark  by  the  Treaty  of  Oliva  in  1660.  But 
the  half  century  of  war  that  followed  resulted,  with  the  overthrow 
of  Charles  XII.,  in  the  triumph  of  the  Danjsh  king.  In  August, 
1/21,  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  was  recognized  by  the  Slesvig 
diet  as  sole  sovereign  of  the  duchy.  By  tlie  Treaty  ui  Copenh;igen 
of  1767  Catherine  II.  of  Russia  renounced  her  son's  claims  ui)on 
Holstein,  as  heir  to  one  bnmcli  of  the  Gottorp  line,  and  Christian 
VII.  novv'  acquired  the  entire  Gottorp  tide.  In  1806,  upon  the 
dissolution  of  the  Holy  Ivoman  empire,  tlic  union  of  Holstein  to 
the  Danish  monarchy  was  affirmed,  though  certain  indefinite  rights 
of  collateral  heirs  were  reserved,  d'lie  'Freaty  of  Vienna  trans- 
ferred Lauenburg  to  Denmark,  and  reafiirmcd  the  ])anish  mon- 
arch's position  as  duke  of  Holstein.  Ijoth  Holstein  and  l_.auenburg 
were  recognized  as  mcmljcrs  of  the  German  confederation. 

The  pro-German  deductions  from  Christian  I.'s  pact  with  the 
estates  at  Ribe,  in  1460,  seem,  therefore,  In'gluy  a])snrd.  'Jlie  legal 
phase  of  the  situaticHi  was,  hcnvever,   in    1844.   very  minor.      The 


^G8  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  A'  I  A 

1806-1844 

crux  of  the  difficulty  consisted  in  the  fact  that  the  population  of 
Slcsvio-Holstein.  except  in  certain  districts  of  tlie  former,  was 
largely  German,  and  that  their  institutions  had,  in  the  course  of  a 
louQ-  process,  which  we  have  noted  from  time  to  time,  become  Ger- 
man also.  Xow.  so  long  as  the  Germans  as  a  race  possessed  no 
national  yearning-s.  the  union  of  the  duchies  in  the  Danish  mon- 
archy had  not  been  looked  upon  as  a  g-ricvance.  But  the  War  of 
Liberation,  of  1813.  had  altered  this  general  condition  by  creating 
a  general  reviwal  of  German  patriotism.  Xext  year  had  followed 
Denmark's  loss  of  Xorway  and  a  consequent  imposition  by  the  Dan- 
ish gd\ernment  of  additional  burdens  upon  the  population  of  Sles- 
vig-Holstein.  In  1830  the  pro-German  cause  was  given  an  organ 
tor  the  establishment,  in  consequence  of  the  revolutionary  move- 
ments of  that  year,  of  provincial  estates  in  both  Slesvig  and  Hol- 
stein.  Finally,  in  1844.  came  Dahlmann's  discover}-.  The  disrup- 
tionists  now  stood  a})parcntly  on  the  ground  of  ancient  rights. 

Returning  nov^-  to  Christian  VIII..  the  leaders  of  the  German 
j^arty  in  Sles\-ig-Ho]stcin  were  the  queen's  brothers.  Cliristian  of 
Augustenburg  and  Ih'ince  I'rederick  of  Xocr.  When,  therefore, 
Chri>tian.  in  184-'.  cle\-atcd  tlie  latter  to  the  rank  of  stadholder 
and  comm.andcr-in-chief  in  .'^Icsvig-ITolstein  and  jnade  him  presi- 
dent C)f  the  go\-ernment  of  the  duchies,  his  action  naturallv  created 
considerable  distrust  among  the  ]iatriotic.  or  ]")ro-Danish,  party, 
wliich  became  positi\'e  consternation  wlien,  without  the  warrant  of 
nepotism  that  may  ha\e  attaclied  to  the  appointment  of  the  ])rince. 
the  posts  of  chancellor  and  foreign  secretary  for  the  duchies  were 
bestowed  upon  ('onnts  Ji')sci:)h  and  Ileinrick  Reventlow  Criminil, 
the  de\'oted  friends  and  crinfidants  of  the  .Augustenburg  prince. 
In  the  indignation  of  tlie  moment,  violent  and  angry  remonstrances 
inundated  the  king  from  every  f|uarter  of  Jutland  and  the  [Danish 
I>land<.  The  press  became  obstreperous  and  the  royal  minister-^ 
resigned.  The  German  ])art}-.  on  the  other  hand,  wa-^  corres])ond- 
ingly  elated  at  these  reiterated  jM^oofs  of  royal  fax'or.  At  the  fol- 
lowing meeting  of  the  estates  at  .Slesvig,  in  .Vo\-ember.  1844,  ihe 
>^ere>-ionij-ts  were  eml)r)ldenc(l  to  ]">ro])ose  that  steps  >liould  be  taken 
for  tlie  admi'^sion  r)f  .Slesvig  into  the  German  confederation,  in 
anticijjation  df  which  the  u-e  of  the  Danish  language  was  to  lie 
suppre~~ed  in  the  duchies,  .and  the  Danish  flag,  the  Dannebrog. 
was  to  be  replaced  by  the  sjiecial  flag  for  the  united  state  of  Sles- 
\  iL:--lIobtein. 


S  L  E  S  \'  I  G  -  H  O  L  S  T  E  I  N  269 

1844-1848 

Again  ang-ry  remonstrances  flowed  in  upon  the  king-,  urging 
condign  punishment  for  the  treason  done  the  language  and  the 
ilag  of  the  kingdom.  At  first  Christian  appeared  to  liesitate.  The 
candor  of  the  disruptionists.  liowever,  could  permit  no  douht  as 
to  their  intentions.  In  1846  King  Christian  published  the  "open 
royal  letter,"  declaring  Slesvig  an  organic  part  of  the  Danish  realm, 
and  governed  by  the  same  rule  of  succession.  Aloreover.  as  to 
those  portions  of  Holstein  where  a  different  rule  of  succession  jm'c- 
vailed,  he  would  spare  no  effort  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  mon- 
archy. At  the  same  time  he  refused  to  receive  protests  from  the 
provincial  estates  of  Slesvig-Holstein,  and  soon  after  deprived 
Prince  Frederick  of  the  important  posts  which  the  latter  had  been 
intrusted  with  in  1842.  This  remained  the  situation  of  affairs 
till  January  20,  1848,  when  Christian  VIII. ,  dying,  was  succeerled 
by  Frederick  VII.,  the  last  of  tlie  male  line  of  his  house. 

Frederick  VII. 's  initial  act  was  to  publish  a  liberal  constitu- 
tion. The  significance  of  this  document,  in  connection  with  the 
Slesvig-Holstein  question,  is  that  it  treated  all  parts  of  the  mon- 
archy as  on  the  same  footing.  At  this  very  moment  the  "  h^ebru- 
ary  Revolution  "  was  occurring  in  Paris  and  transmitting  the  revo- 
lutionary impulse  to  e^'ery  quarter  of  Furope.  A  public  meeting 
at  Altona  demanded  the  establishment  of  a  separate  constitution 
for  Slesvig-Holstein  and  the  admission  of  Slesvig  into  the  Ger- 
man confederation,  which  demands  were  immediately  drafted 
into  resolutions  by  the  provincial  estates  and  forwarded  to  the 
king  at  Copenhagen.  Frederick,  in  his  reply,  admitted  the  right 
of  Holstein,  as  a  member  of  the  German  confederation,  to  be 
gnided  bv  the  decrees  of  the  h'rankfort  diet,  but  declared  that  he 
had  neither  "  the  power,  right,  nor  wish  "  to  permit  Slesvig  to 
enter  the  confederation.  At  the  same  instant  a  popular  move- 
ment at  Copenhagen  brought  into  power  a  thoroughly  Danish 
ministry,  pledged  to  the  fc^rmal  and  ex])licit  incor])oration  of  Sles- 
vig with  Denmark.  Ihit  even  before  this  the  Holsteiners,  without 
awaiting  the  king's  reply,  had  taken  matters  into  their  own  hands. 
Prince  Frederick  of  Xoer  had  gained  over  the  garrison  of  the 
castle  of  Rendsburg  by  circulating  a  re])ort  tliat  Coi)enhagen  was  in 
a  state  of  siege  and  h'rederick  VH.  a  prisoner.  A  provisional  gov- 
ernment had  been  formed  at  Kiel;  the  Duke  of  Augustcnbiu-g  had 
gone  to  Berlin  to  demand  aid  from  King  Frederick  William  IV. 

This    mission    was    successful.       The     Prussian    king,     hard 


270  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  VIA 

1848-1849 

pressed  by  his  people,  wlio  had  become  mocnlated  with  tlic  revolu- 
tionary virus  and  were  demanding"  ctmstitutional  liberty,  was 
eais^er  enough  to  appear  in  the  rule  of  defender  of  German  liberties 
in  Holstein.  The  diet  of  Frankfort,  ex])ressin_o-  the  universal  will 
of  Germany,  demanded  that  Slesvig,  as  the  sister  state  of  Hol- 
stein, should  enter  the  confederation.  Immediately  the  envoy 
who  represented  the  King  of  Denmark  as  Duke  of  Holstein  quitted 
h^rankfort,  and  a  state  of  war  ensued  between  Denmark  on  the  one 
side  and  Prussia  and  the  German  confederation  on  the  other. 

^Military  operations  had  already  begun;  the  Danes  had  met 
the  Holstein  army  near  FIcnsborg  and  had  forced  it  to  fall  back. 
Before  they  could  follow  up  their  advantage,  however,  the  insur- 
gents received  strong-  reinforcemen-ts  of  German  tr(3(^ips  under 
Generals  W'rangel  and  Halkett.  On  April  23,  1848,  a  stubborn  con- 
test was  fought  near  Slesvig  Ijetween  the  allied  armies,  amounting 
to  28.000  men.  and  tlie  Danish  army,  under  the  command  of  Gen- 
eral Hedemrmn.  The  Danes,  numbering  only  ti.oc^'O.  and  uujm-o- 
vided  Avith  tlie  more  modern  weapons  of  their  Cjcrman  antagonists, 
were  forced,  after  a  gallant  stand,  jirdlongcd  through  the  wliole 
day.  to  retreat  to  the  little  I.-l'md  of  Als,  where  they  could  lie  under 
cover  of  the  l^anish  ships  of  the  line  and  recruit  their  forces.  Tn 
the  meantime  General  \\'rar,gel  advanced  inland  into  Jutland. 
where  he  attempted  to  collect  fou.r  million  rix  dollars  as  indemnity 
for  the  damage  inilicted  on  his  army  and  on  Cierman  ship])ing'  by 
the  Danish  na\-y.  Before  he  could  enforce  his  deniands.  howe\-er. 
he  received  carders  from  the  Prussian  C(nu't  to  retire  south  of  the 
little  strerun  known  as  the  Konge-aae,  in  wS]es\-ig.  d'his  sudden  and 
unexpected  mo\-ement  v.ris  the  result  of  Russian  intervention,  which 
the  I'russian  mr)narch  was  not  in  a  position  to  dviv. 

At  the  same  moment  King  Oscar  (jf  Swcd.en  <ent  troops  into 
I'yen  to  help  the  Danes,  but  before  they  could  -strike  a  blow  the 
great  ])owers  had  interfered.  1  lostilities  still  conlinued.  in  a  desub 
tory  fashion,  for  some  v^eeks  longer,  but  at  length  a  se\-en  months' 
armistice  ^^■as  agix'cd  upon  by  the  rmtagoni-ts  and  signed  at  .MalmT) 
on  Augu^t  J(^>.  P)y  this  truce  it  was  stipulated  that  tlie  acts  of  the 
jjri-jvi^ional  go\-crnment  of  the  insurgents  should  be  rc])udi;ited  and 
that  the  duchies  ^hoqild  be  go\-ernfd  till  the  conch!:-ion  of  the  war 
by  fi\e  .Slc.-\ig  and  lloFtein  comnn'-^siouers.  chosen  conjointlv  by 
the  kings  of  l'ru--ia  and  Denmai'k. 

Ihe  truce  wa^  <o  uuhati-l'actorv,  ho\\e\-er.  to  all  i)arties  con- 


1849 


S  L  E  S  V  I  G  -  H  0  L  S  T  E  I  N 


271 


cerned,  that,  at  its  expiration,  hostilities  were  eagerly  resumed. 
In  the  spring  of  1849  80,000  insurgent  and  German  confederate 
troops  were  poured  into  the  duchies.  The  Danes  beat  back  the 
Hanoverians  under  General  Wynecken  at  Ldlerup.  and  inflicted 
severe  loss  on  an  army  of  Saxons.  Ba\-arians,  and  Hessians,  who 
tried  to  take  the  Dybbel  works  by  storm  ;  but  they  lost  some  of  the 
best  of  their  men-of-war.     General  Rye,  in  conjunction  with  the 


Generals  Schleppegrell  and  Aloltke,  succeeded  in  relieving  Kold- 
ing,  in  Jutland,  and  driving  out  llic  insurgents,  an  acliicvement 
which,  together  with  Rye's  masterly  rctrc;it  before  rm  army  triple 
his  own  in  numbers,  excited  the  admiration  even  of  tlie  enemy.  In 
the  engagenient  vdn'ch  took-  place  before  Frcdcrici.a  in  July.  1849, 
the  Danes,  un.dcr  the  chief  comm.'ind  of  General  Biilow,  carricil 
by  assault  the  Ilolslein  lines,  and,  in  addition  to  a  large  nuiuber  of 
prisoners,   took   31    cannons  and   3000  arms   from  the  instu'gents. 


f^T^  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  \  I  A 

1849-1850 

With  this  victory  for  the  Danes  the  campaign  ended  and  another 
truce  was  agreed  upon,  during  which  the  provinces  were  again 
placed  under  "  a  board  of  commissioners,  made  up  this  time  of 
an  EngHsh  plenipotentiary,  one  Danish,  and  one  Prussian  repre- 
sentative." The  southern  districts  remained  under  the  protection 
of  Prussian  troops  and  the  northern  under  Swedes  and  Norwe- 
gians. The  rcNuIt  was  much  the  same  as  in  the  former  case;  the 
Germans  did  all  in  their  power  to  thwart  the  purpose  of  the  Danish 
king,  and  the  I'higiish  and  j^anish  commissioners  found  themselves 
luiable  to  maintain  order.  Soon,  however,  a  peace  was  concluded 
with  Prussia.  Denmark  now.  for  the  first  time  since  the  beginning 
of  the  war,  found  herself  at  liberty  to  deal  single-handed  with  the 
insurgents,  who  had  succeeded  in  getting  together  an  army  of 
upward  of  30.000  uTen,  and  placing  it  under  the  command  of  a 
Prussian  ofticer,  W'illisen. 

On  July  I.  1850,  before  the  armistice  had  expired,  Williscn. 
after  haxing  niade  a  public  entry  into  the  town,  accompanied  by 
the  Duke  (>i  Augustenburg,  took  up  a  stroirg  jjosition  at  Istcd.  near 
Slcsvig.  II1C  duke,  in  the  meanwhile,  as-sumcd  the  tiilc  (jf  sover- 
eign of  the  provinces,  and  made  constant  appeals  to  tl:e  i)C'i])]e.  In 
the  character  of  a  wronged  prince,  about  to  fight  for  In's  own  and 
their  independence  against  an  oppressive  tyrant.  The  Daiii>]i 
army,  numbering  27,000  men,  under  Gener.al  Krogh,  attacked  tlie 
insurgents  Jul}'  24.  On  that  and  the  following  day.  in  the  midst 
of  rain  and  hca\"y  mist,  a  deci^i\-e  battle  was  fought  at  Istcd,  whicli 
ended  in  the  retreat  of  W'illisen,  and  in  the  occupation,  by  the  tri- 
umphant Danes,  of  Slcsvig  and  the  old  Danish  frontier  defense-, 
the  Danne\irl<e.  An  attrick  on  Midsunde,  in  tlie  following  Septem- 
ber, by  \\'i!h-en,  was  e(|uall\"  disastrous  to  the  disrtipti- mist  cause, 
the  in-nrgcnt<  l)cing  (lri\-en  back  v.  ith  frightful  loss  from  Frcdericks- 
stad,  and  ■  >\]u  Ihtlslein  battalion  lacing  nearl_\-  wiped  (^ut.  At  this 
point  thi'  ficrnian  confederate  goxTriiment.  in  consCf|uencv  of  the 
d'real}-  "f  Ohniit/.  l)Ctween  Pru--ia  rutfl  An^tri.a,  iiilcrfercd,  and 
sent  4(>.<i<H)  Aiislrians  in!o  the  Ih'l-^tein  terriicry.  T' )  ilie  cabinet 
of  Viviiiia,  ihc  !('(,'  bol1i  of  Cicrman  naiionahi  \-  au'l  I'f  e\-ery  move- 
ment -niacking  .f  dcmocrarv'.  die  Slesv-ig-Ih  .l-.teincrs  were  simjjly 
rebels  in  rrxult  agaiii-i  tlieir  -'ox-creign.  The  in>nrgent  army  was 
disbrnnlei],  .-iinl  a  JMJnt  Danidi,  (hais'^ian.  and  Austrian  comnn's- 
sion  wa<  a,p])i  >inicd  1.1  ■^o\(tii  IhTicin  till  it-  rcl;iti<>ns  ti^  l^enmark 
could  be  dcliiicd.   while   Slvs\  ii'    \\a-   left    under  the  control   of  the 


SL  E  S  V  I  G  -  II  0  L  S  T  E  I  N  ^iTii 

1850-1S63 

Danish  king  to  be  (iccill  with  as  lie  and  his  advisers  nii^:;-ht 
determine. 

B}^  the  London  protocol  of  Ani^ii^l  j,  1850.  the  powers.  Avith 
the  exception  of  Prnssia,  declared  for  tlie  same  rule  of  succession 
for  all  parts  of  the  DanisJi  state.  By  the  Treaty  of  London  of 
May  8,  1852,  to  which  Prussia  also  g-ave  its  assent,  Duke  Christian 
of  Glucksburg-  was  made  heir  presumptive  to  the  Danish  throne, 
since  the  reigning  line  would  become  defunct  with  the  demise  of 
Frederick  VII.  At  the  same  time  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg  re- 
nounced his  pretensions  to  the  succession  in  Slesvig-Holstein  in 
consideration  of  an  indemnity  from  the  Danish  monarch.  Thus, 
while  the  continuance  of  the  Slesvig-Holstein  estates  was  stipulated 
and  Holstein's  rights  as  a  member  of  the  German  confederation, 
under  the  Treaty  of  181 5,  were  reiterated,  the  integrity  of  the 
dominions  of  the  King  of  Denmark  was  essentially  maintained, 
and  the  Slesvig-Holstein  question  was  seemingly  at  an  end. 

Xo  so,  however.  The  imi)ulse  of  German  nationalitv  and 
Prussian  ambitions  were  still  to  be  reckoned  with.  Relying  on  the 
apparent  sentiment  of  the  powers  in  favor  of  Denmark's  integrity, 
l-h-ederick  VII.  resumed  his  attemjjts  to  assimilate  Slesvig-Holstein 
to  the  rest  of  his  realm.  In  October,  1855,  the  king  granted  his 
Danish  subjects  a  new  constitution  and  extended  it  to  the  duchies 
and  the  work  of  superseding*  German  institutions  with  Danish 
began  with  considerable  vigor,  perhaps  with  some  harshness.  At 
any  rate,  bitter  complaints  reached  the  diet  of  Frankfort,  which 
forthwith  renewed  its  old-time  threats  of  armed  inter\cntion  in 
behalf  of  German  rights.  In  Xovember,  1855,  Frederick  con- 
sented to  exclude  Holstein  from  the  operation  of  the  national  con- 
stitution. By  this  time,  however,  tbe  population  (^f  Slesvig  was 
also  clamoring  for  autonomy,  and,  in  1861,  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment announced  its  support  of  Slesvig's  course.  lA'cn  the  British 
government,  thus  far  an  advocate  of  Denmark's  integrity,  urged 
a  separate  administration  for  Slesvig-Holstein.  That  tlie  Danes 
would  never  yield  this  point,  confident  as  they  were  of  British  back- 
ing, was  made  plain  by  tlie  royal  manife:  to  of  >darch  30,  1863.  On 
October  i  the  diet  at  I^rankfort  decreed  federal  execution  against 
the  King  of  Denmark  as  Duke  of  Holstein.  Xoxember  15  King 
Frederick  died.  Immediately  the  eldest  son  of  the  Huke  of  Augus- 
tenburg, who  had  never  sanctioned  his  father's  renunciations  of  the 
family  pretensions,  ha'^tened  into  the  duchies  and  assumed  the  title 


J>T4-  S  C  A  X  D  I  N  A  \  I  A 

1863-1864 

of  Duke  Frederick  VIII.  of  the  united  and  independent  province  of 
Slesvig-Holstein.  while  Sax(Mi  and  Hanoverian  troops  entered  the 
latter  duchy  as  mandatories  of  the  diet. 

At  this  point  Bismarck,  ahxady  tlie  ]ea<hnQ-  fi^^ure  on  the  Euro- 
pean stage,  becomes  the  chief  actor  in  t!ic  Slesvig-Holstein  per- 
formar.ce.  Bismarck's  fundamental  idea  was  that  German  unity 
was  to  be  achieved  only  through  Prussian  domination,  ^^'h,ereas, 
what  the  German  people  intended  in  1864,  with  reference  to  Sles- 
vig-Holstein, was  that  another  independent  state  should  be  added 
to  the  German  confederation,  capable  of  allying  itself  with  Austria, 
and  of  thus  assisting  in  standing  oft  Bru.ssia  ;  what  Bismarck  desired 
was  that  Slesvig-Holstein  should  become  incorporated  with  Prus- 
sia to  aid  the  latter  in  the  necessary  enterprise  of  expelling  Austria 
from  the  German  confederation.  A\'ithout  delay,  therefore.  Bis- 
marck proceeded  to  rccogni/e  Christian  TX.  as  the  rightful  monarch 
of  the  duchies,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  Danish  realm,  urging  that 
tlie  Treaty  of  Pondon  mu.:^t  be  (il)>er\ed.  At  tlie  same  time  he  did 
not  withdraw  his  demands  of  1861  for  the  concession  by  the 
Danish  government  of  autonomy  to  Slesvig;  but.  by  a  piece  of 
diplomacy  of  marvelous  dexteritv.  lie  brougiit  tlie  Pmperor  of 
Austria  o\-er  to  the  belief  that  the  diet  of  P'rrmkfort  was  su]i])orting 
a  revolutionary  movement  in  the  duchies.  Of  course  Austria  and 
Prussia  could  have  no  commerce  with  revolutions,  and  wliile  the 
cause  of  Sles\-ig  must  not  suffer,  it  must  be  ])romoted  only  by 
d.ealings  with  legitimate  authority.  Idic  Austrian  and  Prussian 
ultimatum  demanding  autonomy  for  Sles\-ig  being  reiectcd  by 
Christian  IX.,  the  troops  of  these  powers  entered  Slesvig  bY^bru- 
ru-y  I,   1864. 

There  was  no  alternative  left  Denmark  but  to  ])reparc  for 
Avar.  .V  Danish  army  of  40,000,  under  General  de  Meza.  was  sent 
U)  defend  tlie  1  )annc\'irke.  The  success.  Ir.wevcr,  of  the  Auslriaai 
contingent  of  the  iinTiding  forces  in  their  oj'crations  against  the 
center  of  tlie  i)ani>h  arm\-.  comjK'lled  the  latter  to  fall  back'  \\\u  ,u 
the  fortified  ])o-;t  of  Dybbel.  llerc  for  some  weeks  the  Prussians 
were  field  in  check-,  wiiile  the  Austriaiis  adw'.iiced  norihward  into 
Jutland.  At  lenglli,  on  April  18,  aflcr  sexcral  liours  wf  hea\v  boni- 
bardment.  Ihe  line-  of  [)\-bbel  v.ere  taken  b\-  -iMrni  ami  tlie  I  )anes 
comjielled  to  v.-itlidra.w  acr(i>^  the  .^oujid  into  Al-.  ."-^oi'ii  tlie  allien. 
de-j)ite  the  unfaiiing  gallantry  of  the  ])aiii>h  defen-e.  were  in  jjos- 
se-^ioii  of  the  entii-e  pci!iii>nla  to  llic  L\mfjor(l. 


SLESVIG-HOLSTEIN  275 

1864-1866 

In  the  meantime,  finding  that  neither  England,  France,  nor 
Sweden  interfered  in  its  behalf,  the  Danish  government  consented 
to  discuss  terms  of  peace.  The  Prussian  envoy,  Bernstorf,  at  first 
proposed  that  Slesvig-Holstein  should  be  recognized  as  an  inde- 
pendent state,  the  question  as  to  whether  Christian  IX.  or  some 
other  prince  should  be  its  ruler  to  be  deferred  to  future  negotia- 
tion. The  Danish  representative  replied  that  his  government  could 
not  recognize  the  independence  of  the  duchies  even  on  the  condition 
of  personal  union.  Austria  and  Prussia  now  demanded  that  Sles- 
vig-Holstein should  be  constituted  a  separate  and  independent  state 
under  Frederick  of  Augustenburg.  The  English  government  se- 
cured a  modification  of  the  proposition,  however,  much  to  the 
favor  of  Denmark,  to  which  the  northern  districts  of  Slesvig  were 
to  remain  attached  in  absolute  sovereignty.  Even  yet  the  Danes 
held  off,  entertaining  vain  hopes  of  English  assistance.  At  last 
the  forces  on  the  Island  of  Als  were  overthrown.  In  order  to  save 
his  monarchy  from  complete  dismemberment.  Christian  IX.  was 
now  compelled  to  accept  the  terms  offered  by  tlie  Peace  of  Vienna, 
which  was  signed  October  30,  1864.  King  Christian  renounced 
all  claims  on  the  duchies  of  Lauenburg,  Plolstein,  and  Slesvig,  and 
pledged  himself  to  abide  by  whatever  decision  Austria  and  Prussia 
might  make  in  regard  to  the  future  disposal  of  these  provinces. 

Ostensibly,  Bismarck  had  carried  on  the  war  in  behalf  of  the 
Slesvig-Holsteiners,  and,  latterly,  in  behalf  of  Frederick  of  Augus- 
tenburg; in  reality,  he  fought  for  the  consolidation  of  Germany 
about  Prussia,  and  under  the  house  of  Hohenzollern.  When, 
therefore,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  he  offered  the  sovereignty 
of  Slesvig-Holstein  to  the  Augustenburg  prince,  it  was  on  the  con- 
dition that  Kiel,  well-fitted  to  become  a  great  naval  station,  should 
be  handed  over  to  Prussian  control,  that  certain  strategical  posi- 
tions along  the  Slesvig-Holstein  frontier  should  be  likewise 
surrendered  into  Prussian  hands,  and  that  the  entire  naval  and  mili- 
tary resources  of  the  duchies  should  l)c  made  subject  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Berlin  government.  Botli  Frederick  .-nid  the  Austrian 
emperor  united  to  veto  this  astounding  ])r()position.  By  the  C(mi- 
vention  of  Gastein,  of  August,  1865,  Eauenburg  was  made  over 
to  Prussia  in  full  sovereignty,  Slesvig  received  a  Prussian  ad- 
ministration, and  Holstein  an  Austrian.  Xext  year,  however, 
occurred  the  Six  Weeks'  War  and  the  terrible  Austrian  defeat  at 
Sadowa.     By  the  Treaty  of  Prague,  signed  July  26,   1866,  Prus- 


276  SCANDINAVIA 

1866-1833 

sia's  sovereignty  in  Slesvig-Holstein  was  at  last  completely  estab- 
lished. Though  a  clause  of  the  treaty,  inserted  at  the  instance 
of  Napoleon  III.  provided  that  north  Slesvig  should  be  restored 
to  Denmark  unconditionally  if  the  population  should  so  determine 
by  a  plebiscite;  this  stipulation,  with  Prussia's  triumph  and  Na- 
poleon's downfall  in  1870,  proved  totally  illusive,  and,  in  1878 
Austria  agreed  to  the  cancellation  of  the  clause.  The  inhabitants 
of  north  Slesvig  have  never  ceased  to  show  their  discontent  by 
electing  protesting  deputies  to  the  reichstag.  The  Prussian  gov- 
ernment has  retorted  by  persecuting  Danish  patriots  and  forbidding 
the  use  of  tlie  Danish  language.  In  1885  sixteen  girls  were  fined 
for  singing  Danish  patriotic  songs  and  a  bookseller  was  similarly 
mulcted  for  having  offered  for  sale  a  book  whose  covers  bore  the 
Danish  ccjlors. 

The  war  of  1864  effected  two  things:  it  brought  to  a  close  a 
struggle  that  had  been  going  on  in  various  guises  for  o\'er  six  cen- 
turies ;  it  brought  to  the  ]3.'mish  frontiers  a  formidable  power  that 
would  be  notliing  loath,  morcnver,  t(j  extend  its  sway  to  the  tide 
waters  of  the  Cattcijat  and  the  North  Sea. 


Chapter    XXI 

CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  THE  THREE 
KINGDOMS.     1844-1910 

OSCAR  I.  was  forty-five  years  of  apfe  wlien  he  ascended 
the  Swedish  throne.  His  popularity  with  his  suhjects 
was  immense;  he  was  known  both  as  a  pliilanthropist, 
interested  in  prison  reform,  and  as  a  pohtician  of  the  most  enhght- 
ened  views.  It  is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  for  years 
the  demise  of  Karl  Johan  and  the  accession  of  Oscar  to  the  crown 
had  been  impatiently  awaited  by  the  Swedish  people.  It  was  in.  an- 
ticipation of  this  happy  event  that  the  opposition  consented  to  with- 
hold its  hand  after  the  reforms  of  1840  and  to  give  the  aged 
incumbent  of  the  throne  an  ovation  on  tlie  twenty-fifth  anniversary 
of  his  accession.  The  question  before  the  government  was  still  the 
one  brought  forward  by  the  liberals  of  181 5.  z'iz-.,  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  diet  into  a  popular  representative  parliament  to  which 
the  royal  ministers  should  be  res])onsible.  'l^Iiat  tliis  programme  was 
destined  to  speedy  realization  everybody  believed  in  1844 — conserv- 
atives and  liberals  alike — and  this  belief  v\-as  greatly  strengthened 
when  the  new  monarch  proceeded  to  dismiss  his  father's  ministers 
and  to  put  liberals  in  their  places.  In  1846  a  constitutional  com- 
mission was  appointed  by  th.c  government,  ^■\■!lich  next  year  laid 
its  project  before  the  diet :  the  estates  were  to  be  replaced  by  a 
bicameral  parliament;  the  members  of  the  lower  chamber  were  to 
be  elective;  tliose  of  the  upper  chamber  parti}-  elcctixe  and  ])artly 
appointive  by  the  crown.  At  this  point.  howe\er,  the  theoretic 
obstinacy  of  radicalism,  its  characteristic  inability  at  adaptation 
or  compromiise,  began  to  obtrude  itself.  1"he  reform  was  not  thor- 
ough-going enough.  Ultra-liberals  gl;;dly  united  with  their  dear- 
est foes,  the  ultra-conservatives,  to  defeat  the  royal  project.  In 
]\Iarch,  1848,  revolutionary  uprisings  occurred  in  Stockholm,  in 
imitation  of  the  Parisian  frenzy  (jf  the  month  bcfort',  and  consid- 
erable blood  was  spilled.  The  king  Vvas  still  hopeful  and  oi)en : 
with  his  own  hancl  he  penned  an  amendment  to  the  scheme  of  the 

-217 


278  SCANDINAVIA 

1S48-1866 

preceding  year,  making  all  the  members  of  the  proposed  upper 
chamber  elective.  The  election,  however,  was  to  be  indirect  and 
far  from  democratic.  For  the  smaller  municipalities  twentv-five 
local  assemblies  or  Landsthings  were  to  elect  each  a  representative. 
The  larger  cities  were  to  have  one  representative,  chosen  by  elec- 
toral delegates,  for  every  30,000  of  population.  The  basis  of  suf- 
frage for  both  the  Landsthings  and  the  electoral  delegations 
remained,  morccn-cr,  the  ancient  feudal  one,  whereby  it  often  hap- 
pened that  a  single  individual  cast  more  than  half  the  entire  vote 
of  a  community.  The  retention  of  such  an  anachronism,  asserted 
the  lil^erals,  did  little  to  correct  the  undemocratic  character  of  the 
diet,  in  which  the  system  r)f  voting  by  orders  enabled  27,000  men 
to  counterbalance  2.500,000.  The  king's  benevolence  was  again 
rebuffed.  Alonarchs  of  liberal  })olitical  opinions  are,  however,  pe- 
culiarly apt  to  undergo  a  revulsion  of  feeling,  especially  in  the 
presence  of  an  unappreciative  radical  party,  which  shows  itself  dis- 
posed to  ride  a  free  horse  to  death.  In  his  speech  proroguing  the 
diet,  September  4,  185 1,  Oscar  informed  that  body  that  he  would 
lay  before  it  no  more  plans  of  constitutional  reform,  lie  limited 
the  a[)plication  of  his  words,  however,  to  piu'ely  political  reform; 
for  he  subsequently  gave  his  assent  to  measures  increasing  the 
freedom  of  the  press,  and,  in  1858,  approved  a  grant  of  religious 
t(jleration. 

In  1857  King  Oscar's  health  compelled  him  to  commit  the 
administration  to  the  charge  of  the  crown  prince.  Two  years  later 
he  died.  By  his  queen,  Josephine  of  Lcuchtenburg,  granddaughter 
of  the  I'jnprcss  J(jsephine,  he  left  one  dauglitcr  and  four  sons,  tw(.) 
of  wliom,  Cliarles  and  Oscar,  successively  ascended   the   throne. 

Cliarles  XV.  was  a  monarch  with  a  singularly  open  mind, 
unending  tact,  great  shrewdness  in  tlie  judgincr.t  of  men,  and  ha])py 
rcs])on.-!\-eness  to  the  deeper  mcjtivcs  and  aspirations  of  his  peo])le. 
To  him  and  his  excellent  ministers,  preeminent  anions-  whom  \v;is 
P.aron  l)e  Heer,  it  fell  to  complete  the  reform  presaged  by  his 
father's  earlier  policy.  The  project  of  reffvrm  was,  at  hr-t.  blcjcked 
by  tlu'  clergy  and  the  nobility.  On  December  7,  1<'^C'5.  however, 
e\en  the  noliiliiy  was  constrained  to  yield  to  the  king's  representa- 
tions and  to  gi\e  its  consent  to  a  ])lan  wliicli  had  Ik-ch  relerred  to 
the  diet  more  tliaii  tlu'ee  years  before.  I'.y  th.r  "  C'l 'n.-lilulion  of 
iNrif)"  the  i-ik-'lag  l)ecame  a  bicameral  1egi>latni-e,  witli  an  upi)er 
house,  composed  oi  representatives  chosen  inv  nine  years,  accord- 


CONSTITUTIONAL     GOVERNMENT     279 

1866-1883 

ing  to  the  scheme  of  1848,  and  a  lower  house  of  deputies  ch.oscn  for 
three  years — one  for  every  40,000  inhabitants  in  rnral  districts, 
one  for  every  10,000  inhabitants  of  cities.  Legislatively  the  two 
chambers  were  put  on  a  basis  of  parity,  but  in  case  of  disagreement 
with  respect  to  the  budget,  it  was  provided  that  they  should  unite 
and  vote  as  a  unicameral  legislature.  The  members  of  the  upper 
chamber  serve  wdthout  pay,  those  of  the  lower  house  are  salaried. 
The  franchise  for  the  election  of  the  lower  house,  or — as  in  some 
of  the  rural  districts — of  electors  for  the  purpose,  was  limited  by  a 
property  qualification,  so  that  the  qualified  voters,  in  1899,  were  but 
one-third  the  total  male  adult  population,  and  only  6.7  per  cent, 
of  these  exercised  their  franchise. 

Two  parties  immediately  appear  in  the  riksdag:  the  govern- 
ment party  and  the  Landtmanna  part}^  or  agrarians;  the  former 
urging  mih'tary  reform  on  the  Prussian  model — just  come  into 
vogue  on  account  of  Sadowa — the  latter  urging  fiscal  reform  that 
would  relieve  the  landed  proprietors  of  their  burdens.  A  parlia- 
mentary commission,  appointed  in  1872,  reported  on  the  necessity 
of  botli  projects.  The  same  year  Charles  XV.  died,  bringing  his 
brother.  Oscar  IT.,  to  the  throne.  The  new  king  tried  minister 
after  minister  of  the  conservative  or  governmental  party,  all  of 
whom,  however,  failed  when  they  attempted  any  concrete  legisla- 
tion, on  the  basis  of  the  report  of  1872,  and  most  of  whom  got 
tiirough  tlieir  budgets  only  l^y  dint  of  uniting  the  two  chambers. 
At  last,  in  1883,  the  king  turned  to  Count  Posse,  the  agrarian 
leader,  and  it  seemed  for  the  moment  as  if  Sweden,  by  the  volun- 
tary act  of  its  monarch,  was  to  liave  a  cabinet  government  respon- 
sible to  the  popular  chamber.  Ilie  factious  character  of  the  o])po- 
sition  defeated  the  consummation.  Count  Posse  w-as  deserted  by 
his  own  party  on  the  military  issue,  and  tiie  king  relinciuished  him 
the  follov.ing  A-ear,  but  chose  as  his  successor  anotlicr  agrarian. 
In  1885  the  agrarians  were  again  united,  and  the  election  of  that 
year— which  had  to  be  repeated  on  account  oi  alleged  illegality — ■ 
put  tliem  so  overwhelmingly  in  contn^l  of  the  lower  chaml^er  th.'it 
any  but  an  agrarian  government's  bud.gct  was  an  impossil:)ilily. 
A  compromise  measure  resulted.  I'y  tlie  act  of  ALay  9  thirty  per 
cent,  of  the  land  tax — (rrnndskailcrna — w;is  written  off,  liberal 
grants  vvx-re  begun  for  the  fortification  of  northern  Sweden  and  tlie 
army  and  navy,  and  the  annurd  period  of  drill  for  the  national 
militia  was  extended  from  thirty  to  forty-two  days. 


280  S  C  A  X  D  I  X  A  V  I  A 

1880-1894 

Meanwhile  the  ah'L^nnient  of  paiLies  hafi  begun  to  change  and 
new  ({uestions  had  begun  to  arise.  In  iSSo  a  branch  of  the  agra- 
rian party,  in  consequence  of  Bismarck's  introduction  of  the  protec- 
tive system  into  Germany  th.e  year  before,  began  to  demand  a  corn 
law,  imposing  a  protective  duty  upon  tlie  importation  of  grain. 
As  the  idea  made  headway  in  the  agrarian  ranks  the  urban  repre- 
sentatives in  the  lower  ciiamber,  who  were  becoming  more  and 
more  numerous  in  consequence  of  tlie  expansion  of  commerce, 
took  up  the  defense  of  free  tnide.  In  1888  the  protectionists  were 
overwlielmingly  in  control  in  the  ui)per  chamber.  In  the  second 
chamber  the  twenty-two  freetraders  from  StcKkholm  were  dis- 
qualified by  the  fact  that  one  of  tlieir  number  had  tailed  to  pay  his 
taxes  a  few  years  before,  and  their  o]iponcnts  were  seated,  thus 
giving  the  chamber  to  the  protectionists,  who  now  got  through 
their  programme.  Tlieir  victory.  Iiowcver,  tiacl  been  too  much  a  mat- 
ter of  accident  to  stand  in  its  original  dimensions.  In  1892  the  pro- 
tectionists still  lield  tlie  upper  chamber,  but  freetraders  were  in 
possession  of  the  lower  chamber.  I'lie  former  were  glad  there- 
fore, to  accept  a  compromise  from  the  hands  of  their  opponents 
whereby  the  remnants  of  the  old  land  tax  were  abolished,  to  be 
replaced  by  excise  and  an  income  tax,  and  the  corn  duties  were 
greatly  reduced. 

Almost  from  the  very  outset  the  urban  wing  of  the  opposition 
— after  the  agrarians  became  the  government,  in  1884 — manifested 
socialistic  tendencies.  They  wished  the  government  to  set  aside 
a  fund  for  workingmen's  insurance  and  old  age  pensions ;  they  de- 
manded state  contril)utions  to  the  municipal  schools  and  work 
houses,  and  subventions  to  the  slijppnig  trade;  they  wanted  an 
eight-hour  day  for  labor;  and,  finally,  they  demanded  universal  suf- 
frage. It  is  about  this  last  questiini  th.at  political  contrcwersy  and 
conllict  have  centered  for  the  last  decade.  In  1893  tlie  agitators  in 
belialf  of  tini\-ersal  suffrage  laid  a  j)etition.  bearing  200.000  signa- 
ture-^, bclore  llie  king,  and  summoned  a  ])eo])lc's  ]iarli;nnent.  folk- 
riksdu'^,  to  Stockh(jlm.  The  movement  alarmed  the  now  c<Miserva- 
tive  iigrarians.  In  1887  tln"s  partv  liad  split  on  tlie  (piestion  of 
prr^ectinn.  Tfis  i.^sue  ha\-in.g  been  dispijscd  of  in  \'^^)2,  llie  schism 
was  healed,  and  tlie  former  alignment  of  the  old  Lantltmanna  party 
restored.  'ITe  .\ct  of  i8()4,  wlierehy  tlie  nnniher  of  members  of 
l!ie  11] iper  e!;';i lifer  was  fi  \rd  a!  1  50  ami  tlia.t  dI"  the  1(  .wer  chajnbcr  at 
2^0 — I  ^o    for    llie   ecuntrx-    (h.-tricls   and    80    ior   the    towns — -was 


CONSTITUTIONAL     GOVERNMENT     281 

1894-1901 

plainly  intended  to  secure  the  agrarians  in  the  possession  of  gov- 
ernment indefinitely.  Of  course  the  town  representatives  now 
clamored  more  vociferously  than  ever  for  universal  suffrage  and 
for  proportionate  representation  in  the  lower  chamber.  The  gov- 
ernment brought  forward  moderate  measures  in  i8g6,  and  again 
in  1902,  but  both  were  rejected.  Next  year,  however,  the  riksdag 
instructed  a  commission  to  investigate  the  subject.  Finally,  early 
in  February  of  this  year  (1906),  promise  was  made  in  the  speech 
from  the  throne,  at  the  opening  of  the  riksdag,  of  a  reform  of 
the  franchise,  and,  on  February  24,  a  measure  vvas  brought  for- 
ward in  both  chambers  practically  establishing  universal  suffrage 
for  every  male  citizen  of  the  age  of  twenty-four  or  over.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  number  of  country  representatives  in  the  lower 
chamber  is  increased,  and  that  of  tlie  cities  lowered,  by  fifteen.  The 
passage  of  the  measure  is  said  to  be  assured. 

In  the  meantime  the  long-standing  question  of  military  or- 
ganization had  been  disposed  of.  Ey  the  act  of  1901  every  Swede, 
on  attaining  the  age  of  twcnty-onc.  owes  military  service,  eight 
years  in  the  first  ban  of  the  beviiring,  four  years  in  the  second  ban. 
and  eight  years  in  the  landstorm.  Tlie  period  of  actual  service 
with  the  colors  is  increased  from  ninet}-  daxs  to  172  for  the  years 
1902  to  1908;  aftervvard  to  240  dciys  for  tlic  infantry,  siege  and 
fortress,  artillery  and  train,  divided  into  a  first  period  of  150  days 
in  the  recruit  school  and  three  recalls  of  thirty  days  each;  and  to 
365  days  for  the  other  armies,  divided  into  a  first  period  of  281 
days  and  two  recalls  of  forty-two  days  each.  The  marine  troops, 
including  the  coast  artillery,  serve  300  days  in  all.  Finally  the 
antiquated  system  of  indclta,  by  wliich  troops  were  quartered  upon 
the  landowners,  and  which  exists  from  tlie  time  oi  Charles  IX.,  is 
to  be  gradually  abolished,  until  by  19 13  it  ^vill  have  disappeared  al- 
together. In  1901  the  sirength  of  the  beviiring  was  250,000  men, 
that  of  the  landstorm  200,000. 

The  "Norwegian  Question,"  the  bcginniiigs  of  which  we 
have  already  traced,  f;dls  into  three  periods.  In  ihe  first  period, 
from  1814  to  1872,  the  point  at  issue  \v;is  vJiotlicr  Norway  was  a 
conquered  province  or  tlic  cqurd  jiarlncr  of  Sweden  in  an  e([ual 
monarchy.  In  the  second  peri(j(l,  from  1X72  to  i8<S5,  tlie  question 
to  the  fore  Vv'as  Vv-hetlicr  the  .\ct  u\  I'ln^.'n,  whicii  was  negotiated  by 
Sweden  as  a  treatv  and  eii:iete.l  by  llie  X(;rwegian  sloi-lIiiiig  as  a 
law    w.'i.s   (;n   :\.  lc\'J    wiili    ^'lliei-   enaclments   of  the   storthing   and 


282  S  C  A  N  D  I  X  A  V  I  A 

1844-1372 

subject,  therefore,  to  amendment  and  alteration  by  that  body,  or  a 
fundamental  compact  between  the  storthin^-  and  the  king-  in  his 
capacity  as  monarch  of  Sweden,  and  tlierefore  never  to  be  ahcred 
save  by  agreement  between  the  parties  to  it.  In  the  tliird  period, 
from  1S85  to  1905,  the  cjuestion  of  consuh'ir  and  ch"p]oniaiic  repre- 
sentation was  the  red  thread  running  through  llie  union  ci)ntro\-ersy. 

The  first  period  was  brouglit  practicrdiy  to  a  close  h\-  two 
concessions  on  the  part  of  tlie  (hial  monarcli.  In  1844  Xorway, 
h'ke  Sweden,  was  gi\-en  the  rigiit  to  lioist  its  own  flag,  willi  the 
mark  of  union  affixed  in  tlie  upper  corner,  over  its  navy,  as  six 
years  before  it  had  been  gi\'en  a  simikir  right  witli  reference  to  tlie 
merchant  marine.  In  1859  tlie  Xorwcgian  storthing  passed  a  reso- 
hition  proposing-  tlie  abolition  of  the  office  (^f  viceroy.  Charles 
XV.  viewed  the  change  with  favor,  though  tlie  attitude  of  the 
Swedish  diet  and  press  finally  com])elkHl  hirii  to  withhold  his  sanc- 
tion from  the  measure.  In  i860  the  storthing  formally  declared 
the  complete  equality  of  the  two  kingdoms  to  be  the  basis  of  the 
union,  and  the  king,  in  advocating  a  revision  of  the  Act  of  Lhn'on 
to  the  Swedish  diet,  asserted  that  this  principle  must  be  the  ])oint 
of  initiation  of  such  revision.  The  office  of  viceroy  was  abolished 
in  1872.  The  secoiul  and  third  periods  we  must  dwell  upon  more 
at  length,  since  the  former  results  in  X^'orway's  securing  p;ir- 
liamentary  government,  and  the  latter  in  her  withdrawal  from  the 
union. 

In  1869  Charles  XV.  assented  to  an  act  of  the  storthing  mak- 
ing its  sessions  annual,  instead  of  triennial,  after  1871.  In  the  lat- 
ter year  a  definite  proprtsition  of  rc\'i>ion  of  tlie  Aci  K<i  Cnion  came 
befijre  the  storthing  from  the  hands  of  a  joint  commission  to 
\\hich  the  matter  had  been  referred  in  1863.  Cndcr  the  inlhien.ce 
of  the  Pan-Scrmdinavianism  that  followed  l^enmark's  defeat  in 
[864,  the  Xr)rwegirm  members  of  the  coi-nmi>sion  had  gi\cn.  their 
a>-cnt  to  ])ro]3()sitions  that  meant  a  con.-iderahle  f\tcn>ion  of  the 
])urpo:-cs  of  tlie  union  and  the  ])o\vcrs  of  the  dual  monarch.  Im- 
metliaieh'  a  ])atrii.tic  democratic  ])arl\'  wa>  toinncd,  ur.dcr  tlie  Icad- 
er-liip  of  jiilian  !"'\'eri!ru]),  to  re^-i'-t  ;my  diminution  of  Xorwcgian 
liberties.  Tiii>  di'l  not  me;in  roistance  to  a.ll  ch:i;ige,  ho->.\e\cr. 
The  con-'ituii  ni  of  Xorwaw,  framed  as  it  wa^  in  iNiJ,.  was  ha-cd 
on  the  thci)r\'  of  ihc  reparation  of  ilic  ])owers  oi  g()\crnniL-nt.  The 
king  wa-.  tln'rcfi  aw  an  ni(U'])cndent  cxccnlixc.  and  tlic  cal)inct 
council  re.-pi;n>ihle  U)  the  .--torthing  on!}-  for  it:i  own  ad\icc,  not  Jor 


CONSTITUTIONAL     GOVE  R  N  Yi  E  N  T     283 

1872-1885 

the  king's  decrees.  Moreover,  in  1814  the  storthing  exphcitly 
refused  to  accord  the  cabinet  council  the  right  to  withhold  counter- 
signature of  the  royal  decrees,  declaring  that  the  king  ought  not 
to  be  deprived  of  all  his  privileges.  iMnally,  the  constitution  of 
1 8 14  did  not  allow  the  members  to  attend  the  debates  of  the  stor- 
thing. Now,  however,,  in  1872,  the  new  democratic  party  deter- 
mined to  throw  o^•erboard  what  they  had  declared  to  be  antiquities 
of  the  constitution,  and  to  make  Norway  a  parliamentary  state.  A 
bill  was  speedily  passed  authorizing  the  ministers  to  attend  the 
sessions  of  the  storthing.  Charles  saw  what  the  measure  looked 
to :  namely,  ministerial  responsibility  and  the  restriction  of  the 
royal  choice  to  the  leaders  of  the  majorit}' — the  democratic  party. 
Of  course  he  vetoed  it.  Tlie  bill  repassed  in  1S77  and  again  in 
1880,  receiving-  each  time  the  royal  veto.  i\t  this  last  passage,  by 
the  "  resolution  of  June  9,"  the  storthing  declared  that  the  measure 
was  now  a  law  conformable  to  the  constitution.  The  king,  how- 
e\'er.  advised  by  tlie  law  faculty  of  Christiania  University,  and  by 
his  Norwegian  ministers  of  the  conservative  party,  held  his  ground, 
his  contention  and  that  of  his  advisers  being  simply  that  while  the 
royal  veto  was  merely  suspensive  of  ordinary  legislation,  it  was 
absolute  with  reference  to  measures  the  effect  of  which  would  be  to 
transform  the  Norwegian  constitution,  and,  therefore,  to  alter  en- 
tirely the  character  of  the  dual  monarchy.  \\'hatever  may  ha\'e 
been  the  validity  of  this  argument,  the  storthing  soon  found  the 
means  to  carry  its  point.  By  the  Norwegian  constitution  the  knvcr 
house  of  the  storthing  elects  the  u])per  house,  and  from  this  in  turn 
the  high  court  of  justice  is,  for  tlie  most  part,  taken.  The  elec- 
tion of  1882 — the  lower  liouse  liolds  fov  three  ye;irs — was  over- 
whelmingly democratic.  Th.e  king's  opponents  were  able,  there- 
fore, to  reconstitute  the  high  court  of  justice,  to  bring  the  king's 
ministers  to  trial  for  giving  "  evil  cour.scl  "  and  to  secure  tlieir 
condemnation.  Oscar  now  yielded.  In  1884  he  asked  Svenlru]). 
the  leader  of  th.e  democratic  left,  to  form  a  ministry.  Norway  had 
secured  a  ])arliament;M"v  go\eniment,  and  liad  estal.ihshed  tlie  right 
of  the  storthing  to  enact  amendments  10  the  .\orwegian  constitu- 
tion in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  act  ui  the  union  for  ordinary 
legi.-^lation. 

We  now  tiu'n  to  tlie  third  ])hase  of  the  union  contro\'ei-sy. 
Nothing  was  deternu'ncd  in  1814  with  reference  to  the  conduct  of 
the  foreign  affairs  of  the  dual  monarchy.     Down  to   1885,  how- 


284.  S  C  A  N  I)  I  X  A  \'  I  A 

1885-1899 

ever,  these  were,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  cliarge  of  the  Swedish 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  who.  after  1835.  acted  in  consultation, 
it  will  be  remembered,  with  the  Norwegian  minister  of  .state  at 
Stockholm,  and  who  always  represented  the  monarch  of  the  union. 
But  in  1885  tliis  arrangen.ient  underwent  an  important  change 
in  consequence  of  political  developments  in  Sweden.  By  an  amend- 
ment to  the  Swedish  constitution  of  that  year  the  prime  minister 
of  the  cabinet  council  entered  the  ministerial  council  for  foreign 
affairs,  the  idea  being  to  ren<ler  the  minister  for  foreign  affairs 
amenable  to  the  dominant  opinion  of  the  riksdag,  in  accordance 
with  the  principle  of  .Sweden's  newly  fouTid  ])arliamentarism.  The 
consequences  were  twofold  ;  Norway's  representative  in  the  minis- 
terial council  for  foreign  affairs  was  now  but  one  against  two; 
and.  in  the  second  ])lace.  whereas  f()rmerly  foreign  aft'airs  had  l)ecn 
conducted  Ijy  a  minister  whose  responsibilit}'  was  to  the  monarch 
of  the  union  alone,  they  now  passed  largely  into  the  hands  of  a 
])arliamentary  agency  responsible  to  the  Swedish  riksdag.  All 
this,  moreover,  was  ])racticailv  simultaneous  whh  the  establishment 
of  the  ])rincii)le  of  cabinet  responsibility  in  Xorway  itself.  Of 
course  the  Norwegian  go\-ernment  did  not  ;iccept  ihese  e\'ident 
slights  without  ])rotest.  Tt  proi}osed  tliat  a  ministerird  council  for 
foreign  affairs  should  be  constituted  of  three  Swedish  and  three 
Norwegian  cabinet  members.  d\)  this  proposition  the  Swedish 
government  would  give  only  a  r|ualified  assent,  and  for  a  time  the 
matter  was  dropperl.  a  conservati\'e  ministrv  being  for  the  moment 
in  power  at  Christiania.  ^Meantime.  howc\er.  in  the  inter\-al  of  its 
op]ir)sition.  the  democratic  left  had  been  becoming  mnrc  and  more 
r;!dical.  under  the  leadership  of  Stcen.  d'he  elections  of  1891 
brought  this  party  back  into  power.  ti])on  a  ])latf(irm  callirig  for 
uni\'ersal  stittrage.  direct  taxation,  a  separate  foreign  mim'stry, 
and  a  se])ar,ate  onstilate  for  Norwa\'.  In  i8gj  and  i8()3  tlie  stor- 
thing ])as-ed  ^ncressi\'e  resolutions  calling  for  the  latter  reform. 
])oth  of  which,  hovvever.  King  Oscar  \etoed.  Tlie  elections  of 
1894  .'ind  \^<)y  ttirned  upr)n  the  f|uestinn  of  ^epar.'ite  consuls  for 
Norwa}-,  and  e\-entually  of  ;i  distinct  foreign  mim'stry.  The 
"  1 'atri(jls  "'  were  o\-erwhelmingl\-  I'eturned  to  ])owc'r  both  times. 
In  1899  the  stfirthing  ]jassed  for  the  third  time  a  bill  to  ctit  out  the 
sign  of  union  from  the  Norwegian  emblem.  The  king  allowed  it 
to  become  law.  but  Swedish  opinion  ran  high  and  foreign  observers 
anticipated  an  open  rnpttu'e. 


C  O  N  S  T  I  T  U  1^  I  O  N  A  T.     (i  O  V  E  R  X  M  E  \  T     ^285 

1899-1904 

This  event,  however,  marked  a  temporary  halt  in  the  conflict. 
Next  year  the  Steen  government  secured  its  programme  of  univer- 
sal suffrage.  In  the  November  election  of  that  year  everv  man 
who  had  completed  his  twenty-fifth  year  was  able  to  cast  a  vote  for 
the  storthing.  The  result,  if  not  ironical,  was  certainly  a  surprise 
to  the  radicals,  for  it  was  nothing  less  than  the  capture  of  socialistic 
Christiania  by  the  conservatives.  It  was  now  hcjped  and  freely 
predicted  that  the  radical  government,  confronted  with  possible 
defeat,  would  hasten  to  offer  a  settlement  of  the  union  controversy 
along  lines  acceptable  to  the  king.  In  January,  1902,  a  new  joint 
committee — the  second  since  1895 — was  appointed  bv  the  king  to 
deal  with  the  consular  question.  The  committee  took  a  purely 
ministerial  view^  of  its  competence  and  so  contented  itself  with  re- 
porting, in  July,  two  alternative  methods  of  settlement,  representing 
the  views,  respectively,  of  its  Swedish  and  Norwegian  members ; 
Norway  should  either  have  its  own  consuls,  subordinate  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  to  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  or  a  separate  consular 
service  entirely  under  the  Norwegian  control.  In  the  negotiations 
that  ensued,  first  at  Stockholm  and  then  at  Christiania,  the  crux 
of  the  difiiculty  became  revealed:  if  Norway  were  given  a  separate 
consular  service,  what  assurance  would  the  monarch  have  that 
the  consular  agents  of  the  Norwegian  government  would  not  pre- 
sume to  undertake  diplomatic  functions?  The  Swedish  govern- 
ment's comuiuniquc,  of  ]\Iarch,  1903,  attempted  to  dispose  of  this 
question  on  the  following  basis:  fi)  Separate  consular  services 
were  to  be  established  for  Sweden  and  Norway,  responsible  to  their 
respective  go^■ernments ;  (2)  the  relations  of  the  separate  consuls 
to  the  minister  of  foreign  aft"airs  and  the  diplomatic  service  of  the 
union  were  to  be  determined  by  identical  laws,  which  were  to  be 
unalterable  save  by  the  consent  of  both  governments.  Ilagerup 
was  now  at  the  head  of  a  new  conservative  ministry  at  Christiania. 
In  May,  1904,  he  dispatched  to  Stockholm  an  outline  of  the  identi- 
cal laws  to  which  Norway  would  be  willing  to  accede  and  which 
stipulated,  among  other  things,  that  the  consular  administration 
in  Christiania  shotild  regularly  inform  the  minister  of  foreign  af- 
fairs of  nominations  and  orders,  and  that  when  an  affair  seemed 
likely  to  assume  a  diplomatic  character  the  consul  should  report 
directly  to  that  official  for  instructions.  The  Swedish  reply  was 
delayed  till  November.  It  insisted  upon  the  insnffiriency  of  ilic 
securities    afforded    b}-    TIagerui)'s    propositions,    insisted    that    the 


286  SCANDINAVIA 

1904-1905 

minister  of  foreit^'n  affaiis  slioukl  have  the  power  of  selection,  super- 
vision, and  appointment  of  Xorwe^^-ian  consuls,  and  proposed  that 
the  title  "  King  of  Norway  and  Sweden  "  should  become  "  King 
of  Sweden  and  Norway  '*'  in  th.c  consular  exequatures. 

This  marks  the  end  of  negotiations.  In  the  meantime  the 
Russo-Japanese  War  had  been  waging  in  tlie  East,  and  Russian 
arms  had  been  incurring  defeat  after  defeat.  Now  the  most  effec- 
ti\"e  argument  for  the  integrity  ot  the  union  had  always  been  the 
danger  of  Russian  encroacliment.  Indeed,  in  1851  the  Russian 
government  had  dem;inded  tliat  a  portion  of  the  Norvregian  coast 
be  handed  over  to  the  Russian  Lapps  on  the  Norwegian  frontier. 
Four  years  later  King  Oscar,  in  compensation  for  his  assistance  in 
the  Crimean  War,  had  received  a  trertty  from  England  and  France 
guaranteeing  tlie  integrity/  of  his  dominion  against  Russian  ag- 
gressions. But  now  what  would  i)ecome  of  this  guarantee  if  the 
union  should  be  broken?  The  end  of  the  Russian  bugaboo  inclined 
patriotic  Norwegians  to  believe  tliat  they  did  not  care.  In  the  mid- 
dle of  ]\ray.  1905.  the  storthing  passed  an  act  establishing  a  Nor- 
wegian consular  service  on  what  ])urported  to  be  tlie  lines  laid  down 
by  tlie  Swedish  cuuununiquc  of  March,  1903.  On  ]\Iay  28  the 
royal  veto  arrived.  Immediately  Premier  Michelsen  and  his  asso- 
ciates tendered  tlieir  resignatirnis,  which.  Ivvvever,  the  king  refused 
to  accept.  This  turned  out  to  be  crucial.  The  Norwegian  min- 
istry now  declarcfl  tliat  tlie  king  had  l)cen  guilty  of  an  unconsti- 
tutional act  and  had.  therefore,  forfeited  his  position.  C^n  June  7 
the  storthing  formallv  declared  the  union  dissolved,  on  tlie  ground 
tlint  the  rowal  ])Owcr  had  l)Ccome  ir,o]icrative.  and  .autliori/.ed  the 
council  of  slate  Xo  exerci-e  the  powers  of  government  "  until  further 
notice."  It  ako  adr)j)ted  an  address  to  King  Oscar,  animadverting 
to  the  "course  of  even.ts  \vln'ch  lias  -liown  it^clf  more  ])owcrful 
than  the  wi^h  or  desire  rjf  indixaduals."  contending  that  the  uni(jn 
had  become  an  actu.al  source  of  danger  to  the  continued  amity  of 
tlie  Swedi-li  and  Xorv;egian  ]Teoi)lcs,  and  re(|uesting  the  king  to 
select  a  prince  of  his  own  house  as  king  of  X(jr\vay.  Hie  king,  in 
rc-j)on-c.  ciilrrcfl  so'lcnin  protest  ag.ainst  thc^e  ])roccedings.  and 
summoned  t'le  ril'sdag  in  extraordinary  session  for  June  20. 
'Ihe  que^lion  that  now  suggested  itself  to  everybody  w^as,  will 
.Sweden  liidii  •''  ^'I  ;!])])reli(,ii>i!  )ns  of  wai"  were.  In  i\\t'\"er,  speedily 
di>-i])ated  wlici!  lie  ling,  in  ojicning  the  ril'sdag,  urged  peace.  A 
special  ccjiiiniiiiec  of  tlie  ril-tlig,  ap[jijinted  to  consider  the  ques- 


CONSTITUTIONAL     GOVERNMENT     287 

1905 

tion,  reported  two  conditions  upon  wliich  Norway  ought  to  be 
allowed  to  depart  the  union  in  peace:  First,  tliat  the  dissolution  of 
the  union  be  formally  requested  by  a  new  stnrtliino-.  elected  on  that 
issue,  or  in  consequence  of  a  favorable  plebiscite;  second,  that  cer- 
tain matters  of  common  interest  to  the  two  countries  be  determined 
by  negotiation  and  treaty.  "  l"he  maintenance  of  the  union  by 
force,"  declared  the  report,  "  would  make  it  a  source  of  weakness 
instead  of  strength."  The  riksdag,  after  a  stormy  session,  adopted 
the  report  unanimously  on  July  27.  On  the  same  day  the  storthing 
voted  a  referendum.  Tliis  was  completed  August  13,  after  a  dex- 
terous campaign  for  independence  into  which  the  noted  Bjornst- 
jerne  Bjornson  is  said  to  have  "  flung  himself  with  all  the  fuiy 
of  a  berserker  " ;  368,200  votes  were  cast,  for  the  dissolution  of  the 
union  and  184  against  it. 

The  negotiations  demanded  by  Sweden  resulted  in  the  Karl- 
stad agreement  of  September  23.  The  independence  of  Norway 
was  recognized ;  a  neutral  zone,  fifteen  kilometers  wide,  was  estab- 
lished each  side  of  the  common  frontier;  the  demolition  of  all 
fortifications  within  the  neutral  zone  was  arranged  for;  also  the 
dismantlement  of  the  old  Norwegian  fortifications  at  Fredriksten, 
Gyldenloeve,  and  Overbjerget ;  pasturage  was  granted  in  common 
to  the  Lapps  of  both  countries  for  tlieir  reindeer  until  1917;  it  was 
agreed  that  neither  couritry  sh.oukl  place  prohibitive  export  or  im- 
port duties  upon  commodities,  nor  create  any  ok'Staclcs  of  any  sort 
to  the  free  passage  of  g(_)ods  througli  its  dominions,  nor  levy  higher 
duties  upon  the  goods  of  the  citizens  of  the  other  than  upon  tliose 
of  its  own;  finally,  by  a  provision  which  bids  fair  to  niarl^  a  stej") 
in  the  history  of  internation.al  law,  it  vra.s  stipulated,  v.c>':  cviily  that 
all  future  disputes  between  the  two  countries,  except  those  affecting 
"the  independence,  integrity,  or  vital  iiUcrcsts  of  citiK^r."  s'lould 
be  referred  to  Tlie  Hague  Court,  Inn,  a.lso,  thait  the  (;uc:-t;ivn  as  to 
whether  any  given  disi)u.LC  docs  invoKe  one  or  ivo^re  ol'  [hose  i)oints 
should  likewise  be  referred  to  that  trilfunal.  The  agi-ccnicnt  was 
accepted  bv  the  storthing  October  o  and  by  the  riks'lag  four  days 
later.  In  tlie  nieanlinie,  though  dicre  laal  been  at  f:\->i  ::^r]v.Q.  talk 
of  a  republic,  the  N-rwcgian  throne,  uj^on  whic-h  no  native  ])ri!ice 
had  sat  for  over  fi\e  hundred  }a.-ar-.  had  been  inforn.i.-illy  ten- 
dered to  Prince  Charle-,  second  snn  01  ('n)Uii  I'rince  I'hederick 
of  Denmarl:,  aaid  on  Oct(-iier  19  word  caiue  ihal  liie  c'Tci-  wdiM 
be   accei)ted.      The    l(aanal    tender   and   acccj)iaii';e   tot)k   place    al 


288  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1905-1910 

Copenhagen  on  November  20.  The  coronation  of  the  new  monarch, 
who  has  taken  the  title  of  Haakon  VII.,  occurred  in  June,  1906.  It 
is  perhaps  natural  that  Americans  should  feel  something  of  regret 
that  Norway,  the  completest  democracy  on  earth,  a  community  of 
j)easants  for  the  most  part,  but  one  remove  from  poverty  in  large 
part,  should  have  chosen  to  call  in  a  foreign  prince  to  institute  the 
expensive  heraldry  of  constitutional  monarchy. 

Tile  new  king  was  born  August  3,  1872,  married  ]\Iautl,  third 
daughter  of  King  Edward  VII.  Their  eldest  son.  Prince  Olaf. 
Crown  Prince,  was  born  July  2,  1903.  Like  Sweden,  the  history  of 
Norwa}'  has  been  peaceful  and  uneventful  since  the  accession  of 
the  new  ruler.  He  is  proving  to  be  the  right  man  for  the  people 
he  governs,  and  they  are  developing  internally  under  him.  Re- 
cently, the  most  important  occurrence  in  the  country's  history  was 
the  death  of  its  patriot,  poet  dramatist,  novelist  and  reformer,  who 
had  borne  so  large  a  part  in  securing  the  separation  of  Norway 
from  Sweden,  Bjornstperne  Bjornson,  on  April  26,  1910,  at  Paris. 
He  had  been  taken  to  that  city  in  the  preceding  November  for 
special  treatment,  but  all  the  skill  oi  the  famous  medical  men  was 
unavailing.  So  deeply  was  his  loss  felt  that  when  news  of  it  was 
received  at  Christiania,  a  banquet  given  by  the  foreign  minister 
to  the  ministers  and  the  storthing,  was  immediately  adjourned, 
King  Haakon  himself  being  the  first  to  suggest  this  mark  of  re- 
spect. The  Norwegian  warship  Norge  bore  the  body  of  Bjorn- 
stjerne  Bjornson  to  Christiania,  and  royal  honors  were  accorded  it. 

Oscar  II.  of  Sweden  lived  into  old  age,  celebrating  with  his 
wife,  Queen  Sophia,  their  golden  wedding,  June  6,  1907.  In  August 
of  that  same  year,  in  order  to  cement  friendly  relations  ^vith  the 
United  Stales,  he  sent  Prince  W'ilhelm  of  Sweden  to  the  latter 
country,  where,  on  August  28,  he  visited  President  Roosevelt  at 
Oyster  Bay.  This  revered  old  king  passed  away  on  December  8, 
i'>07,  being  succeeded  by  Cuslav  \'.,  born  June  ii,  1858.  He  mar- 
ried i'riticcss  \'ictoria,  dauglucr  of  i-'rcflerick.  Grand  Duke  of 
Baden.  The  Crown  Prince,  dustav  Arlolf,  Duke  of  Scania,  was 
born  N'A-cnibcr  tt,  1882.  and  inarried  l^rincess  ?\Iargarct  ^'ictoria, 
dauglUcT  f/f  rrincc  Arthur,  Duke  of  Connaughl,  their  eldest  son 
being  (lusla\-  Adolf,  born  April  22,  i9or).  'jdic  new  king  is  simple 
in  tastes  and  haliits,  almost  his  first  act  being  to  order  the  abolisli- 
mcnt  of  the  pr)inpfms  ccrcniom'cs  whicdi  had  attended  the  openin.t;^ 
of  parliament,  so  tliat  when  this  hndy  convened  January  8.  1008, 
the  new  rulei-  \va;~   x'l-elconied  by  Iiis  governing  house.-  with  strict 


CONS  T  I  T  V  r  I  0  X  A  L     CO  \'  E  R  X  M  E  N  T         289 

1905-1910 

simplicity.  The  reign  of  King  Gustav  V.  has  not  been  marked 
with  any  unusual  events,  the  countr}^  being  prosperous,  the  people 
contented,  and  the  government  disposed  to  grant  additional  liber- 
ties as  there  is  public  demand  for  them.  A  popular  measure  of 
this  kind  was  passed  February  13,  1909,  providing  that  all  in- 
habitants of  the  country,  over  twenty-four,  be  entitled  to  a  vote, 
with   proportional  representation  in  parliament. 

Christian  VIII.  of  Denmark  was  a  thorough  autocrat;  Fred- 
erick VII.,  on  the  other  hand,  was  entirely  sympathetic  with  the 
demand  of  his  people  for  a  constitutional  government,  and  to  the 
day  of  his  death  made  laudable  resistance  to  all  counsels  to  despotic 
courses.  Nevertheless  he  found  it  necessary  to  conform  his  con- 
duct to  the  exigencies  of  his  conflict  with  the  duchies,  wherefore 
the  "Constitution  of  '55"  was  less  liberal  in  some  respects  than  the 
one  Avhich  he  had  granted  at  the  outset  of  his  reign.  It  happened, 
therefore,  that,  in  1865,  the  war  with  Germany  being  over,  and 
the  disposition  of  Slesvig-Holstein  finally  settled  as  far  as  Den- 
mark was  concerned,  Danish  liberals  began  to  clamor  for  the 
"Constitution  of  1849."  Christian  IX.  consented  to  restore  it  with 
one  important  modification :  the  upper  chamber  of  the  bicameral 
riksdag,  the  landthing,  instead  of  being  elective,  was  to  be  com- 
posed permanently  of  sixty-six  propertied  members,  who  were  to 
be  chosen  every  eight  years,  twelve  by  the  king  and  fifty-four  by 
indirect  election  at  the  hands  of  large  property  holders.  This 
change  was  opposed  vigorously  by  the  liberals,  and  not  till  1866 
was  the  new  constitution  promulgated.  The  other  features  of  the 
"Constitution  of  '49"  remained :  the  lower  chamber,  the  folkething, 
was  to  be  chosen  for  three  years :  its  members  were  to  be  re- 
apportioned from  time  to  time — in  1902  there  were  114;  the  right 
of  suflfrage  fell  to  all  male  citizens  thirty  years  of  age  not  criminals, 
paupers,  or  servants  resident  with  their  empl(->yers.  Moreover, 
religious  and  civil  liberty  were  guaranteed  by  a  number  of  pro- 
visions, securing  the  right  of  association,  of  public  assembly,  the 
freedom  of  the  press  from  censorship  and  lialjility  only  to  the  law, 
the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  jury  trial,  the  comparative  independence 
of  the  judiciary. 

Until  1872  the  conservative  government  controlled  a  majority 
in  both  chambers.  That  year,  however,  the  broad  suffrage  put  the 
liberal  left  in  power.  This  party,  like  its  counterpart  in  the  Swedish 
lower  chamber,  was  constituted  predoniinanily  of  frugal,  even  j)ar- 


290  S  C  A  N  D  I  N  A  V  I  A 

1872-1910 

siminioiis,  agriculturist?,  who  beheld  public  expenditure  with 
lamentation.  Moreover,  under  the  leadership  of  Berg,  a  remark- 
able parliamentarian  and  one  of  the  most  enlightened  exponents 
of  democracy  that  modern  Europe  has  seen,  it  speedily  laid  down 
the  programme  of  compelling  the  king  to  choose  his  ministers 
from  the  majority  in  the  popular  chamber.  The  king,  on  the 
other  hand,  kept  his  conservative  minister,  Estrup,  and  urged  an 
ambitious  naval  and  military  increase  and  defensive  fortification. 
Till  1875  the  folkething  confined  itself  to  protest  and  agitation, 
and  rather  tamely  voted  the  budget  on  the  ministry's  terms.  That 
year,  however,  it  plucked  up  courage  to  refuse  the  budget. 

This  audacious  course  must  necessaril}^  have  brought  the  king 
to  his  knees,  it  would  seem,  since  article  49  of  the  constitution 
forbids  the  collection  of  any  impost  without  the  authorization  of 
the  riksdag.  Article  25,  however,  says  that  "the  king  may,  in  case 
of  urgency,  when  the  riksdag  is  not  in  session,  decree  provisional 
laws."'  To  this  article  the  king  and  his  ministers  now  had  re- 
course. The  regular  rejection  of  the  budget  and  the  ecpially  regu- 
lar decree  of  a  pro\'isional  budget,  upon  the  adjournment  of  the 
chambers,  now  became  the  order  of  procedure  of  Denmark's  pre- 
tended constitutional  government.  IMoreover,  King  Christian  did 
not  confine  himself,  as  Bismarck  liad  done  in  a  sin:iilar  struggle 
with  the  Prussian  diet,  between  the  years  1862  and  1866,  to  pro- 
midgate  the  items  of  the  last  authorized  budget,  but  added  what- 
ever other  items  he  saw  fit. 

In  1870,  the  left,  owing  to  the  entrance  of  socialistic  elements 
within  its  fold,  became  divided.  The  government  took  advantage 
of  the  opportunity  to  get  its  provisional  budgets  confirmed  and 
to  secure  the  sanction  of  the  folkething  to  its  extensive  scheme 
of  fortification  of  Copenhagen.  In  1885,  however.  Berg  and  his 
adherents  Vv'ere  again  in  cr)iitrol  in  the  popular  chamber.  The  gov- 
ernment retorted  upon  the  country  by  promulgating,  not  only  pro- 
vi.-i'inal  budgets,  but  measures  in.crea-ing  the  police,  restricting 
the  C'.r.stitntional  rights  of  freedom  of  speech,  and  the  press,  and 
of  a-.-cmljling,  and  authorizing  arbitrary  imprisonment — the  first 
victim  fif  which  was  Berg  himself.  T^nt  again  the  left,  becoming 
now  urban  ratluT  than  rur.'d,  the  workingman's  l)arty,  rather  than 
llinf  of  ihe  i)ca  -i^ilry,  fell  into  dis.-en^idu  and  schism.  At  the  same 
ti'iio.  [800.  it  1'--1  t^c  Icadi'r.'-hip  of  llcrg  by  dealh.  15y  with- 
drawing many   of  its   :ir];itrary   enactments   of  the   [previous  year. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    GOVERNMENT         291 

18r2-1890 

the  government  was  again  able  to  get  its  budget  voted  regularly 
and  constitutionally.  In  1894  Estrup  retired.  Next  year  the 
democratic  left  was  a  majority  once  more,  and  the  fight  for  a  re- 
sponsible ministry  was  renewed — destined  to  a  Iiappv  outcome 
this  time. 

At  the  close  of  the  session  of  1900  the  eight  most  prominent 
members  of  the  governmental  party  in  the  lands ihiiig  withdrew 
their  allegiance  to  the  ministry  and  formed  themselves  into  an  op- 
posing section.  The  position  of  the  king  was  nov/  untenal)le.  In 
July,  1901,  he  accepted  a  liberal  ministry.  After  a  struggle  of 
three  decades,  during  which  despotism  had  vainly  tried  to  conceal 
its  real  lineaments  beneath  a  mask  of  constitutional  form,  Denmark 
had  won  a  parliamentary  government.  "It  was  no  longer  enough," 
said  Professor  Deuntzer,  the  new  prim.e  minister,  "that  the  nation, 
through  the  legislature,  influenced  the  passing  of  laws,  but  the 
application  and  carrying  out  of  them  must  be  intrusted  to  men 
who  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the  nation,"  i.  e.,  a  responsible  ministry. 

In  the  midst  of  their  political  conflicts  Swedes^  Norwegians, 
and  Danes  have  continued  to  produce  v/riters  of  European  reputa- 
tion. The  era  has  also  been  one  of  great  material  prosperity  and 
development  for  all  three  nations.  In  its  foreign  relations  the 
Danish  government  has  of  late  years  shown  a  disposition  to  draw 
away  from  the  old  Russian  connection  and  to  seek  friendly  rela- 
tions with  Germany.  Sweden  also  has  inclined  to  a  German  con- 
nection. But  more  recently  apprehensions  have  found  cx])rcssion 
in  certain  quarters  that  the  kaiser's  real  purpose,  in  1905,  in  dis- 
puting France's  claims  to  a  unique  position  in  I\Torocco  was  to 
elicit  from  Europe  a  general  recognition  of  the  principle,  "Spcci;:! 
interests,  special  rights,"  or  at  least  a  precedent  fortifying  that 
principle;  and  that  what  seemed  defeat  for  Germany  in  the  subse- 
quent Algeciras  conference  was  really  a  victory,  tlie  eventful  fruit 
of  which  will  be  German  paramountcy  in  Denmark  and  Holland. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  present  weak  condition,  of  Russia  precludes 
either  danger  or  assistance  from  that  quarter.  I'lie  wisest  foreign 
policy  for  all  the  Scandinavian  powers — and  at  the  same  tirnc  ;i 
perfectly  feasible  one — would  seem  to  be  a  triple  alliance  of  llic 
north,  backed  by  the  British  fleet.  The  rclation>hi-p  l)ctwccn  llic 
new  Norwegian  house  and  the  British  ro}-al  family,  as  well  as 
more  solid  reasons,  would  assure  Britisli  resist aiicc  to  any  ]>lan 
whereby  a  recuperated  Russian  fleet  would  find  a  depot  and  harbor 


292  SCANDINAVIA 

1901-1906 

on  the  Norwegian  coast.  In  the  second  place  the  present  motive 
of  British  policy  seems  to  be  to  checkmate  Germany  at  every  turn, 
and  certainly,  if  it  came  to  defending  the  integrity  of  Denmark, 
this  policy  would  have  the  alarmed  public  opinion  of  Europe  back 
of  it.  Finally,  looking  at  the  matter  simply  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  Scandinavian  nations,  a  close  defensive  alliance  would  be  one 
step  more  toward  that  Pan-Scandinavian  federation  which  has 
long  been  a  cherished  project  of  Scandinavian  patriots,  and  wdiich 
the  divorce  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  removing  as  it  does  all  causes 
for  mutual  irritation,  can  but  hasten.  Alread}^  Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark  have  one  system  of  coinage,  and  many  financial  and 
commercial  regulations  in  common,  and  at  this  very  moment  a  tri- 
national  commission  is  engaged  in  arranging  a  common  civil  code 
for  the  three  countries. 

The  death  of  King  Christian  occurred  on  January  29,  1906,  at 
the  great  age  of  eighty-eight  years.  As  the  oldest  of  European 
monarchs,  and  as  the  father  of  the  Queen  of  England,  the  King  of 
Greece,  and  the  Empress  Dowager  of  Russia,  and  the  grandfather 
of  the  new  king  of  Norway,  Christian  was  fittingly  known  as  the 
"patriarch  of  Europe."  A  zealous  defender  of  his  prerogative 
almost  to  the  day  of  his  death.  Christian  was,  in  point  of  view  and 
character,  an  eighteenth-century  benevolent  monarch  of  the  best 
type.  ]\Iany  anecdotes  illustrate  his  parental  fondness  for  his 
people,  particularly  the  peasant  folk,  with  whom  he  delighted  to 
mingle  incognito,  and  wdiose  regard  he  never  forfeited,  even  in 
the  midst  of  his  struggles  with  their  representatives.  He  is  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  by  his  eldest  son,  a  man  sixty-two  years  old, 
and  generally  credited  with  great  experience  and  tact.  He  rules 
as  Frederick  V^HI. 

In  concluding  a  word  should  be  said  with  reference  to  Iceland, 
still  the  colony  of  Denmark  and  long  since  the  only  important  por- 
tion of  outlying  .Scandinavia.  Tn  1874  the  island,  hitherto  gov- 
erned by  a  patriarchal  system,  received  a  constitution  and  a  single 
legislative  chamber,  largely  elective  in  make-up.  She  still  con- 
tril)utcd  to  the  Danish  exchequer,  however,  until  1S93,  when  she 
received  a  second  chamber  to  her  legislature  and  financial  inde- 
pendence. Hie  completion  of  the  telegraph  cable  between  the 
Shetland  Inlands  and  Iceland,  in  190^).  brought  the  latter  country 
within  the  reach  of  all  parts  of  the  wr)rl(1.  and  increased  the  value 
of  it  accordingly. 


POLAR  RESEARCH 

By  George  Thomas  Surface,  M.  Sc. 

Research  Fellow  in  Geography,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Professor  of 
Geography  in  Emory  and  Henry  College 


u 


POLAR   RESEARCH 

Chapter     I 

ARCTIC    REGIONS 

NDER  the  comprehensive  geographical  term.  Polar  Re- 
gions, we  must  include  those  ont-of-way  ends  of  the  earth 
— to  adopt  a  loose  phraseology  in  keeping  with  our  in- 
complete knowledge  of  the  subject  at  this  time — the  countries  of 
ice  and  snow  centered  around  the  respective  poles  of  the  earth, 
and  bounded  by  geographical  imaginary  lines,  the  Arctic  and  Ant- 
arctic Circles.  But  although  imaginar3\  these  circles  are  not  arbi- 
trary. By  reason  of  the  mathematical  certainty  with  which  the 
sun's  beams  trace  their  limit  of  twenty-tliree  and  a  half  degrees 
around  each  polar  center,  they  seiwe  admirably  for  designation  in 
a  region  where  neither  political  nor  other  civilized  boundaries  can 
be  referred  to  with  accuracy. 

These  regions  of  barrenness,  of  ice-covered  lands  and  ice- 
bound seas,  uninhabited  for  the  most  part,  and  largely  devoid  even 
of  animal  or  vegetable  life,  have  long  been  centers  of  scientific 
and  commercial  interest.  As  usual,  commerce  must  wait  for  grop- 
ing science  to  lead  the  way;  but  commerce  directs  the  way  to  be 
opened,  and  the  fact  that  all  of  the  great  maritime  nations  are 
grouped  in  the  northern  hemis])here  destined  the  Arctic  region  for 
earlier  research  and  exploration.  The  frozen  waters  of  the  Arctic 
merge  so  completely  with  the  great  liighways  of  the  maritime 
countries  of  Europe  and  America  that  tlicir  exploitation  was  sure 
to  follow  closely  on  the  discovery  of  t]ic  latter.  1'his  cstal)hs]icd 
a  new  trading  country  on  the  western  shore  of  the  great  ocean. 
The  wliale  and  the  seal  fisheries  lured  advcntrirous  mariners  fartlicr 
and  fartlier  north,  and  tluis  inaugnrated  the  great  era  of  Arctic 
exploration. 

For  the  proper  following  of  the  history  of  rescarcli  in  llie 
north  ])olar  regions  il   is  necessary  to  review  mentally  (lie  ])hysieal 

295 


^m 


P  O  L  A  K     \i  E  S  E  A  R  ( "  II 


features  of  thai  region,  so  far  as  they  are  known  to  us.  'I'he  Arctic 
Circle,  which  is  described  at  latitude  66  degrees  and  32  minutes 
north,  or  1408  geographical  miles  from  the  polar  center,  forms  a 
ring  passing  through  the  northernmost  portions  of  America,  Europe, 
and  Asia,  so  that  the  shores  of  these  continents  form  a  fringe  within 
the  polar  regions.  The  water  spaces  intervening  are  Davis  and 
Bering    Straits     and    the   north    Atlantic    Ocean.      This    circle    is 


barely  tangent  to  the  northern  coast  points  of  Iceland,  that  little 
island  which  has  been  known  to  history  since  the  eighth  century, 
and  which  has  played  so  important  a  part  in  the  ])rogress  and  de- 
\C']opn"ient  of  luirope.  The  southern  triangle  of  Greenland,  the 
great  Arctic  island,  is  cut  through  by  this  .Arctic  Circle.  L'or  a 
long  time  our  meager  kncnvledge  of  Greenland  was  practically 
limitCfl  to  the  s(jull!crn  triangle,  the  interior  being  an  unknown 
waste  of  snow  and  ice.     i'eary,  in  i<S92,  penetrated  to  the  midpoint 


A  R  C  T  I  C     R  E  G  I  O  N  S  297 

of  its  northern  coast,  Independence  Bay.  latitude  8i  degrees  T^y 
minutes. 

Westward  the  circle  passes  through  the  archipelago  stretching 
across  the  northern  breadth  of  the  wedge-shaped  continent  of 
America,  and  cuts  through  the  Yukon  region  of  the  great  northern 
peninsula,  Alaska.  Yvom  Bering  Strait  it  circles  the  more  or  less 
regular  northern  coast  of  Asia,  skirts  the  southern  end  of  the  Gulf 
of  Obi,  cuts  through  the  northern  extremity  of  Russia,  and  finally 
caps  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  before  reaching  again  the  north 
Atlantic  seas. 

From  70  degrees  north  latitude  the  coast  of  Greenland  follows 
a  trend  almost  parallel  with  the  somewhat  regular  coast  line  of 
Norway,  leaving  a  passage  some  600  to  700  miles  wide  from  the 
north  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Greenland  Sea.  The  approximate  con- 
formity of  coast  line,  in  connection  with  the  fact  that  the  flora 
and  fauna  of  the  continental  island  are  essentially  European,  would 
indicate  that  this  enormous  cleft  is  of  comparativelv  recent  origin. 
Davis  Strait  and  Baffin  Bay,  on  the  other  hand,  are  more  ancient. 
Plants  and  animals  of  the  east  coast,  so  far  as  biologists  have  given 
them  classification,  are  more  nearly  European  than  are  those  of  the 
west;  but  even  on  the  west,  vrhich  so  closely  approaches  the  conti- 
nent of  Xorth  America,  the  absence  of  distinctly  American 
species  is  marked.  The  approach  to  the  Arctic  seas  by  Davis 
Strait  in  the  most  narrow  part  is  only  165  miles,  and  the  width 
of  Bering  Strait  is  45  miles.  Thus  the  Arctic  Circle  may  be  said 
to  traverse,  in  its  8640  mile  course,  only  900  miles  of  vv'ater. 
The  Arctic  is  a  landlocked  region,  and  this  fact  has  had  an  im- 
portant influence  on  the  physical  conditions  with  which  we  have  to 
deal,  influencing  the  ocean  currents  and  the  mr)vcments  (vf  floating 
ice.  Similarly  the  great  archipelago  wliich  chokes  the  passage  of 
the  seas  north  of  the  .American  continent,  and  the  wirinus  island 
groups  north  of  Europe  and  Asia,  all  have  determinant  effects  upon 
these  same  conditions. 

The  story  of  the  Arctic  regions  in  history  slioifld  be  traced 
from  the  Ultima  Thule.  which  Pytlicas  of  Massilia.  the  celebrated 
Greek  navigator  and  gengraphcr  of  the  tliird  ccntriry  v..  c,  declared 
to  exist  some  six  davs'  voyage  di>tant  to  llic  nortli  of  P.ritain  ;  in 
a  region  where  there  was  no  longer  any  (h'stinction  between  air 
and  earth  and  sea,  but  a  mixture  of  the;  ihiec,  wliieh  he  nai'vely 
compared  to  the  gelatinous  niolhisc  known  as  the  I'liJuco  iiuiriiris. 


298  P  O  L  A  R     R  E  S  E  A  R  C  H 

In  such  a  region  he  declared  land  travel  or  navigation  of  the 
"  Sluggish  Sea  "  \vas  entirely  impossible.  The  hardy  Pytheas  as- 
serted that  he  himself  had  seen  this  triune  substance,  but  relied  upon 
others  for  the  remainder  of  liis  information.  The  unknown  land 
to  the  north  of  Britain  was  probably  no  other  than  the  Shetland 
Islands,  in  latitude  60  degrees  north,  and  thus  some  450  miles 
south  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  evident  from  a  passage  in  Pliny,^ 
and  other  classic  writers,  that  Pytheas  was  greatly  interested  in  the 
phenomena  of  night  and  day  in  the  Arctic  regions.  Pliny  states  that 
he  recorded  the  days  at  the  summer  solstice  as  twenty- four  hours 
long,  with  nights  of  the  same  duration  at  the  time  of  the  winter 
solstice.  Pytheas  believed  this  Thule  to  be  situated  under  the  Arctic 
Circle,  and  his  descriptions  from  hearsay  would  apply  quite  accu- 
rately to  Arctic  conditions.  At  the  same  time,  his  knowledge  of 
astronomy  was  so  considerable  that  he  might  easily  have  stated  what 
he  believed  to  be  mathematically  correct,  supposing  the  voyager  to 
travel  toward  this  most  northerly  portion  of  Europe,  or,  indeed, 
of  the  known  world.  But  Pytheas  is  careful  not  to  claim  tliat  his 
statements  are  based  upon  personal  knowledge.  In  84  a.  d.,  when 
the  Romans  succeeded  in  rounding  the  northern  point  of  Britain, 
and  visited  the  Orkney  Islands,  they  "  caught  sight  also  of  Thule  " 
("  Dispccta  est  ct  Thule,"  says  Tacitus),  though  this  could  only 
apply  to  the  Shetland  Islands.  On  the  other  hand,  Pytlieas,  in 
describing  land  distant  six  days'  voyage  from  Britain,  really  indi- 
cated a  far  more  northern  latitude,  as  evidenced  by  liis  exaggerated 
idea  of  the  whole  extent  of  that  island,  whicli  lie  aflirmed  was 
more  than  40,000  stadia  (4000  geographicad  miles)  in  circumfer- 
er.cc.  But  even  if  the  Shetland  Islands  was  the  Thule  of  Pytheas, 
they  are  not  the  I'ltima  Thule  of  our  day,  which  is  practically  as 
mucli  a  mystery  to  us  a.s  v.'as  Pytheas's  "  uttermost  cud  of  the 
earth  "  to  the  ancient  world. 

Thule  is  also  t!ic  na,mc  trsed  bv  a  chronicler  n.amed  Dicuil,  an 
Iri^h  monk-,  writing  in  the  early  ])art  oi  the  nintli  century.  lUit  in 
ti!c  ca.-e  (jf  Dicuil  the  evidence  is  clear  that  the  island  of  Iceland  is 
real!}-  rcferrcfl  to,  for  this  longer  .and  more  remote  island  was 
certainly  \isited  by  thr)sc  "  ser|nesterc(l  persons,"  the  Irish  (_\i]dees, 
long  bcfoi'c  it  was  discovered  by  the  Xorthmcn.  Dicuil's  in- 
Formatifjn  is  related  as  coming  from  (jtlier  n'Ktnks  \\lio  had  dwelt 
in  Thule  for  se\cral  months  at  a  time,  and  rep(jrted  there  v/as  no 
darkness  at  the  summer  solstice. 

^  Pliny,  "  llislnria  Naturalis,"  iv.   16,   104 


A  R  C  T  I  C     R  E  G  I  O  N  S  299 

Alfred  of  England,  in  his  translation  of  Orosins,  alludes  to  the 
voyages  of  Other  and  Wulfstan,  from  the  narratives  as  given  by 
Other  himself;  and  from  the  evidence  it  seems  probable  that  this 
explorer  rounded  the  North  Cape  and  reached  the  coast  of  Lap- 
land as  early  as  the  ninth  century.  As  to  Iceland,  following  the 
settlement  in  the  island  of  the  little  colony  of  Irish  Culdees,  long 
before  its  discovery  by  the  Scandinavians  in  850  a.  d.,  there  came 
across  the  seas  from  Norway  and  the  Western  Isles  colonists,  who. 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  ninth  century,  quickly  spread  their  hold- 
ings over  the  best  lands  in  the  island.  It  appears  that  by  11 00  it 
had  about  50,000  inhabitants  of  Teuton  stock,  with  some  admixture 
of  Celtic  blood.  In  their  isolated  situation  at  the  chill  extremity  of 
the  known  world,  surrounded  by  the  most  extreme  disadvantages 
of  climate  and  situation,  these  settlements  maintained  their  existence 
independently  for  a  thousand  years.  Of  untold  value  to  the  histo- 
rian are  the  ancient  chronicles  preserved  as  historical  fossils  in  Ice- 
landic literature,  and  the  Icelandic  language  itself,  allowing  for 
natural  changes,  is  claimed  by  philologists  to  represent  in  a  living 
form  the  speech  of  our  earliest  Teutonic  ancestors.  The  chiefs,  who. 
resisting  the  centralization  of  the  head-kings,  had  led  their  kinsmen 
and  dependents  across  the  North  Sea  and  established  new  home- 
steads there,  naturally  retained  their  positions  as  leaders,  acted  as 
priests  at  feasts  and  sacrifices,  and  presided  over  the  moot  or  Thing. 
When  disputes  betvreen  neighboring  homesteads  arose,  as  they  were 
sure  to  do,  the  Constitution  of  Ulfliot  was  devised,  this  being  about 
930  A.  D.  It  provided  for  a  central  moot  for  the  whole  island. 
The  law  for  this  central  moot  or  Al-thing  was  modeled  on  that 
of  the  Gula-moot  in  Norway.  In  964  certain  reforms  in  the  organ- 
ization of  the  island  were  devised  by  Thord  Gellir,  but  after  the 
early  part  of  the  eleventh  century  little  constitutional  change  was 
made  for  two  centuries,  during  which  period  the  great  houses 
monopolized  the  chieftains  and  used  tlieir  power  for  subservient 
ends.  But,  in  1271,  the  old  common  law  was  discarded  and  the 
new  Norse  Code  took  its  place. 

Icelandic  sagas  provide  data  for  vivid  pictures  of  the  old  life. 
The  island  was  pastoral,  the  people  depending  on  their  herds  for 
clothing  and  food.  Hay,  self-sown,  was  llic  only  crop,  and  tliis, 
with  shepherding,  fishing,  and  fowling,  afforded  ()CCU])ation  for 
the  summer  months.  Spring  was  marked  by  feasts  and  moots; 
the   Al-thing  was   in  summer;   marriage  and   funeral   gathcrnigs 


300  P  O  I.  A  R     RES  F.  A  R  C  II 

marked  the  fall,  and  the  yule  feast  broke  the  drearv'  inonotony  of 
the  long-  Icelandic  winter.  Chieftain  and  thrall  had  nmch  in  com- 
mon, sharing-  the  comforts  and  inconveniences  of  a  life  rude  at 
its  best.  In  the  days  of  paganism  it  seems  that  the  great  chief 
governed  ;;;  abscufia,  remaining  at  the  court  of  the  Norway  king: 
but  Christianity,  which  was  introduced  about  looo.  brought 
changes,  and  visits  to  the  continent  grew  less  and  less  frequent. 

In  the  same  way.  the  first  to  make  permanent  settlement  on 
the  shores  of  Greenland  were  the  hardy  Norsemen,  and  it  is  certain 
that  in  their  coasting  voyages  along  the  glacier-covered  island  they 
]ienetrated  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle.  In  the  summer  months, 
when  the  Norse  settlers  at  Brattleid  and  Einarsfjord  carried  on 
their  seal  hunting,  thev  must  have  gone  far  within  the  Arctic  Circle. 
In  latitude  y^  degrees  north  a  runic  stone  fa  model  of  the  stolen 
original  being  still  preserved  at  Copenhagen)  has  been  found  in  a 
cairn,  and  internal  evidence  places  its  inscription  at  about  1235. 
Still  another  early  expedition  is  generally  accepted  by  scholars  to 
have  been  made  about  1266,  reaching  /-,  degrees  and  46  minutes 
north,  in  Barrow  Strait.  It  is  evident  that  the  ordinary  hunting 
grounds  of  these  Norsemen  of  the  Sea  were  in  latitude  73  degrees, 
to  the  north  (>i  the  modern  l^anish  town  of  Upernavik.  In  the  fol- 
lowing century  the  black  death  broke  out  in  Europe  and  the  far- 
off  settlements  in  Greenland  seem  to  have  been  lost  sight  of.  No 
trace  oi  communication  with  Norway  is  found  after  1347,  and  it  is 
suj^posed  that  the  colonists  perished  two  years  later  in  an  attack 
by  Skrellings  or  Eskimos,  who  came  down  upon  them  out  of  the 
white  north. 

As  a  natural  consequence  to  the  discovery  of  the  New  World 
m  1.^92.  came  increasing  knowledge  of  the  great  ocean  which 
separated  it  from  the  (jld.  AForeover,  the  impenetrable  continent 
blocking  the  navigator's  path  to  the  west,  led  commercial  inter- 
cuts to  seek'  still  another  route  to  the  coveted  Indies.  Sebastian 
r.'ihfjt  wa<  directly  concerned  in  an  expedition  fitted  out  in  ATay, 
1553,  under  .Sir  Hugh  AA'illoughby  and  Richard  Chancellor,  "for 
the  search  and  disco\er\-  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  to 
<')])(,'n  a  wdx  :\]\(\  passage  to  our  men,  for  travel  to  new  and  unknown 
kingdoms."  r,nt  this  exj)edition  was  as  ill-fated  as  any  concerning 
which  we  ha\e  infrjrmation.  Willoughby  reached  Nova  Zembla,  or 
rather  sighted  tlie  coast  of  Gooseland ;  but  attempting  to  winter  in 
a  harbor  of  [.apland,  he  and  his  sixty-two  men.   representing  the 


ARCTIC     REGIONS  301 

company  of  two  of  the  three  ships  forming-  the  expedition,  suc- 
cumbed to  scurvy — that  disease  which  for  centuries  was  destined 
to  destroy  the  white  man  essaying  existence  in  tlie  polar  regions: 
Chancellor  reached  Archangel,  and  on  the  invitation  of  Czar  Ivan; 
to  whom  couriers  had  carried  tlie  news  of  his  arrival,  journeyed  to 
jMoscow.  where  he  succeeded  in  making  arrangements  for  future 
commercial  intercourse  with  Russia ;  or.  as  it  was  then  more  com- 
monly called,  Muscovy.  On  his  safe  return  a  charter  was  granted 
to  the  "  Association  of  Merchant  Adventurers."  of  which  Cabot 
was  the  head.  Stephens  Burrough,  in  1556,  and  Arthur  Pet.  in 
1580,  each  under  the  Muscovy  Company,  succeeded  in  reaching 
and  exploring  the  Waigat,  the  name  then  given  to  the  strait  leading 
into  the  Kara  Sea.  Jackman,  the  companion  of  Pet.  wintered  in  a 
Norwegian  port,  from  which  he  sailed  in  the  spring,  but  was  never 
heard  of  again.  These  were  the  first  vessels  from  western  Europe 
to  succeed  in  navigating  the  ice  of  the  Kara  Sea. 

All  these  were  efforts  to  open  up  a  passage  in  the  northeast. 
Meanwhile,  in  the  spring  of  1576.  Frobisher.  aided  by  ^^Tichael  Lot. 
a  merchant,  sailed  with  two  small  vessels,  the  Gabriel  and  Michael. 
neither  of  which  was  over  25  tons,  intent  on  seeking  a  passage  to 
the  northwest.  The  Michael  deserted  in  midocean.  and  the 
Gabriel  continued  alone.  Land  was  sighted  in  July,  which  by 
reason  of  its  height  Frobisher  christened  Queen  Elizabeth's  b^orc- 
head.  On  the  next  day,  July  21,  he  entered  the  strait  called  by  his 
name.  Frobisher  s  specimens  of  mica-schist  produced  great  excite- 
ment on  his  return.  They  were  thought  to  show  traces  of  gold 
and  expeditions  were  quickly  fitted  out  to  seek  this  ore.  These 
expeditions  were  failures  in  the  achie\-ement  of  their  purpose, 
but  to  Frobisher  must  be  credited  two  new  items  of  geographical 
knowledge:  namely,  that  there  existed  at  least  two  wide  openings 
on  the  American  coast  leading  westward,  in  latitudes  60  degrees 
and  63  degrees  north.  It  is  interesting  to  note  what  Sir  ?\]artin 
Frobisher  wT(jte  as  to  this  search  for  the  northwest  passage:  "  It 
is  the  only  thing  in  the  world  that  is  left  yet  undone  whereby  a 
notable  mind  might  be  made  famous  and  fortunate."  So  mucli 
for  the  sixteenth-century  i)oint  of  view. 

In  1585,  John  rX'ivis.  an  exjjert  seaman  and  a  man  of  scien- 
tific mind,  set  out  in  quest  of  this  northwest  passage.  He  made 
three  voyages,  aided  by  "'  adventurous  merchants."  It  is  clear  now 
that  Frobisher  never  saw  Greenland,  so  that   Davis   was  the  lirst 


302  POLAR     RESEARCH 

to  visit  the  west  coast  after  the  old  Xorse  colonies  there  had  been 
abandoned.  As  to  how  lie  regarded  it  may  be  judged  from  the  name 
he  gave  it — "  The  Land  of  Desolation,"  and  he  quaintly  describes 
the  "  loathsome  view  of  the  shore  and  irksome  noyse  of  the  yce," 
which  "  bred  strange  conceite  amongst  us."  Davis  penetrated  Gil- 
bert's Sound,  where  the  Danish  mission  of  Godthaab  was  after- 
ward established,  and  crossed  the  strait  now  known  by  his  name. 
In  this  third  voyage  he  passed  up  this  strait  to  latitude  'J2  degrees 
and  41  minutes  north,  where  he  gave  the  name  Sanderson's  Hope 
to  a  precipitous  island  of  granite  which  projected  out  of  the  open 
waters.  Davis  returned  convinced  that  passage  could  be  made 
through  a  "  great  sea,  free,  large,  very  salt  and  blue,"  which  he 
described  as  opening  out  to  the  north,  Tn  1595  he  published  "  The 
World's  Hydrographical  Description,"  but  his  reports  were  at 
variance  with  Frobisher's.  and  caused  the  confused  narrative  and 
map  which  the  Venetian  Zeni  had  published  in  1558  to  be  more 
puzzling  to  cartographers  than  before. 

The  commercial  value  of  a  northern  route  to  China  and  India 
early  impressed  the  merchants  or  Holland — the  more,  undoubtedly, 
since  the  Sjjanish  and  Portuguese  sought  to  monopolize  the  water 
route  by  way  of  the  African  continent.  In  a  quarter  of  a  century 
after  Chancellor's  opening  up  of  Archangel  Bay,  the  Dutch  had 
established  trade  relations  there,  and  with  Kola.  In  1594  certain 
Amsterdam  merchants,  inspired  by  Peter  Plancius,  a  learned 
geograi)her,  sent  out  a  vessel  of  100  tons  under  W'illem  Barents. 
The  name  of  Barents  is  distinguished  in  the  history  of  the  search 
f()r  a  northern  water  route  to  the  Orient,  for  his  expedition  was, 
])erhaps,  the  most  successful  of  the  early  \-oyages.  Carlscn,  in 
1 871,  after  ;i  period  of  274  years,  found  relics  of  this  expedition. 
In'irenls  left  Ilollruid  in  June.  1594,  to  find  a  nortlieast  route  to 
China,  and  returned  after  tracing  the  coast  of  Xo\-a  Zembla  north- 
eastward to  ilie  Orange  Islands,  latitude  ^y  degrees  north.  A 
seconfl  exjicdition  made  an  unsuccessful  attcmj)t  to  enter  the  Kara 
Sea.  In  May,  1596.  the  third  and  most  important  expedition  \vas 
sent  out  by  tlie  cit\'  of  Amsterdam,  consisting  of  two  shijjs  with 
Jacob  !  locmskercl-:  and  Corncliszoon  Riji  in  command.  The  vessels 
!~c])aratcd  at  .^]jit>:bergen.  and  I5arents.  wlio  accompanied  I  locms- 
kcrck-  as  ])iloi,  directed  the  course  of  his  \esscl  around  Nova 
Zeinjjla.  I!nl  at  !ccha\-en  the  ship  was  frozen  in.  and  helpless 
months  of  suftei-iiiL!"  folKnved.     Manv  c^f  the  crew  died  fr(jrn  the 


ARCTIC     REGIONS  303 

intensity  of  the  cold.  At  last,  in  June.  1597.  the  survivors  set  out 
in  separate  boats  for  the  mainland.  Barents  was  among  those  who 
succumbed,  but  the  survivors  reached  Lapland  in  safety,  and  found 
the  other  vessel.  This  was  the  first  time  an  cxpcdition'had  endured 
a  winter  in  Arctic  seas.  Barents  lost  his  life,  but  his  last  expedi- 
tion was  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  tliat  had  been  made  to 
the  unknown  Arctic  frontier,  since  it  ascertained  the  terrific  pres- 
sure of  the  ice  pack  upon  the  north  coast  of  Xova  Zembla,  and 
proved  the  existence  of  open  water.  I-'rom  Barcnts's  vovages  can 
be  directly  traced  the  Dutch  wdiale  fisheries,  destined  to  liavc  such 
important  effect  in  stimulating  Arctic  exploration. 

After  Chancellor's  voyage  and  successful  negotiations  with 
Russia  there  had  arisen,  as  vre  have  seen,  the  famous  ]\Iuscovy 
Company.  It  was  this  company,  togetlver  with  associations  of 
London  merchants  inclined  to  science  or  enterprise,  which  continuetl 
their  efforts  to  find  the  coveted  northern  passage.  The  East  India 
Company  also  sent  out  an  expedition  under  Caiptain  \\\aymouth  in 
1602,  but  his  attempt  to  realize  the  sanguine  hopes  of  Davis  proved 
a  failure. 

It  is  in  the  service  of  the  ]\Iuscovy  Company  that  we  firid  the 
beginning  of  that  brief  record  of  tlie  four  years  known  of  tlie 
life  of  Henry  Hudson.  In  ]\Iay.  1607,  Hudson  was  sent  out  in 
the  iMuscovy  Company's  ship  Hopeful,  in  quest  of  a  northeast 
passage  to  the  Spice  Isles.  Hudson,  on  his  first  recorded  voyage, 
discovered  the  most  northern  knovrn  point  of  the  east  coast  of 
Greenland,  in  latitude  73  degrees,  and  named  it  ''  Hold  v.dth  Hope." 
He  examined  the  long  edges  of  accumulated  icefioe  strctclnng  from 
Greenland  to  Spitzbergen,  and  reached  a  latitude  of  80  degrees 
and  23  minutes.  He  then  turned  back  and  readied  England  after 
an  absence  of  four  and  a  half  months.  TTudson's  secon.d  expedi- 
tion for  the  ■Muscovy  Company  vras  in  1608.  when  lie  examined 
the  ice-front  between  Spitzbergen  <ind  Xo\'a  Zembla,  and  tried  t(_> 
pierce  his  way  through,  the  'W'aigat,  or  Kara  Strait,  being  dMi- 
\'inced  that  this  w-ould  bring-  him  Vvithin  e.'is.y  ;iccess  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  In  ]^darch  of  the  following  }'car  the  intrcjiiil  I-jiglisliinan 
again  set  out  with  two  ships,  the  CJoo/J  Hah,'  vavA  I fa'f  Mo'Ui,  tin's 
time  in  the  em])loy  of  the  Dutch  k!:;-!  India  C<)m])any.  B.ut 
although  he  again  reached  Xova  Zeml)l;;,  his  crew  nn'tinicil  in 
terror,  and  the  Waigat  ])assage  '.vas  lu.t  altcinptrd.  '!'l:c  (,'oihl 
Hope  returned  to   .\msterdam,   v.hilc   (lie  Half  Mann  niidicd   o.n 


804*  POLAR     RESEARCH 

across  the  Atlantic.  But  Hudson's  important  discoveries  in  the 
lower  latitudes  have  no  Arctic  interest,  except  that  they  exploded 
the  theory  that  a  great  strait  would  be  found  leading  through  the 
American  continent  somewhere  about  latitude  40  degrees.  In  April 
of  1610  Henry  Hudson  again  set  sail,  his  expedition  being  under 
the  auspicies  of  an  association  of  Englishmen  who  still  held  faith 
in  the  feasibility  of  a  northwest  passage.  By  June  10,  1610,  Hud- 
son had  reached  the  strait  which  now  bears  his  name.  Three 
months  were  spent  exploring  the  great  inland  sea  of  400,000  square 
miles,  which  we  know  as  Hudson  Bay.  The  vessel  was  frozen 
hard  and  fast  in  the  ice  early  in  Xovember,  and  the  months  that 
followed  were  fraught  with  great  suffering,  since  provisions  lessened 
daily  and  mutinous  warnings  increased  with  each  added  hardship. 
]Month  by  month  slowly  and  drearily  passed  until  late  in  June, 
161 1,  when  a  ])ortion  of  the  s^iip's  crew  mutinied  openly,  seized 
Hudson,  his  son.  and  seven  disabled  companions,  put  them  off  in 
the  ship's  small  boat  and  set  them  adrift,  to  what  new  agonies  of 
body  and  mind  can  only  be  conjectured,  since  no  one  of  the  ma- 
rooned party  was  ever  heard  of  again.  Early  accounts  of  the  voy- 
ages of  Henry  Hudson  may  be  read  to  this  day,  both  in  English  and 
in  Dutch,  and  it  is  to  tlie  annals  of  the  Dutch  and  English  whaling 
trade  that  we  must  look  for  practically  all  of  the  information 
respecting  the  country  of  the  polar  seas  which  the  next  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  }-ears  were  able  to  give.  The  hoped-for  route  to 
the  Spice  Isles  remained  a  mystery,  but  the  commercial  instinct  of 
both  the  Englisli  and  the  Dutch  was  not  slow'  to  fasten  upon  a  new 
and  prrifitable  inrhistry.  such  as  .Arctic  whaling  sjjeedil}'  grew  into. 

l^he  voyages  of  Hudson  may  be  said  to  have  led  immediately 
to  the  vSpitzbergen  whale  fisheries.  The  four  voyages  of  Poole, 
from  if)()'/  to  1612,  and  those  of  Eotlicrby.  Baffin,  Joscpli,  and 
Ivlgc,  were  all  in  furtherance  of  this  profitable  business,  though 
resulting  in  important  gcogr.aphical  knowledge.  1^o  the  west,  in- 
formatifMi  was  incrca'^cd  bv  the  sudden  ruixiet}'  of  the  Danish  kings 
for  the  aliandoncd  ci)lonv  in  Greenland.  In  1605.  under  Christian 
TV.,  an  c\])C(lition  of  tlircc  ships  \-isitcd  Circcnland's  western  coast 
and  other  expeditirm'^  followed  the  next  year,  rcsultful  of  much 
interesting  information,  but  rcsultless  in  discovering  the  lost  colony. 

F.ngli-h  expeditions  unrler  .Sir  Thomas  ButtcMi  (1612.  1013), 
and  Captain  '';il)l)(,iis  ([614),  bctrayerl  tlic  persistence  of  the  mer- 
chant associations  of  London.     In  i6r:;.  Robert  Bvlot  and  William 


ARCTIC     REGIONS  305 

Baffin  made  many  valuable  observations  in  the  ncu'thwest  Arctic. 
In  1616,  they  sailed  beyond  Sanderson's  Hope  and  around  the 
channels  of  Baffin  Bay,  naming  points,  sounds,  and  islands  after 
various  munificent  promoters  and  friends  of  the  expedition.  But 
the  discovery  of  the  great  channel  or  bay  which  bears  his  own 
name  w^as  the  most  important  result  of  Baffin's  voyage.  Baffin  was 
a  skillful  navigator,  and  as  a  scientific  man  was  the  equal  of  Davis. 
His  magnetic  observations  are  of  value  to  this  day,  and  he  was 
one  of  the  earliest  navigators  to  make  use  of  astronomy  in  fixing 
longitude  at  sea. 

Hudson  Bay  was  also  the  field  of  explorations  for  a  London 
e,xpedition  sent  out  under  Luke  Fox  in  1631,  and  one  from  Bristol, 
under  Captain  James,  sailed  the  same  year.  In  1670,  an  associa- 
tion under  the  name  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  was  incorporated, 
and  developed  a  lucrative  fur  trade  in  that  region.  Indeed,  from 
now  on  through  the  next  century,  the  enthusiasm  for  adventure 
and  discovery  gave  way  to  commercial  enterprise,  which  stepped 
in  to  reap  the  profits,  but  incidentally  planted  permanent  settle- 
ments in  these  inhospitable  regions  of  the  north.  Fleets  of  whal- 
ing ships,  both  English  and  Dutch,  now  annually  sought  the  Spits- 
bergen seas,  primarily  for  profit,  but  to  Frederick  ]\Lartens  (1671), 
and  the  Van  Keulens,  father  and  son  (1700-1728),  we  are  indebted 
for  real  contributions  to  geographic  science.  The  Dutch  whale 
fisheries  flourished  until  late  in  the  century,  forming  "  a  splendid 
training  school  for  the  seamen  of  the  Netherlands." 

Tlie  English,  the  great  rivals  of  the  Dutch,  carried  their 
period  of  prosperity  in  this  industr}^  well  into  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  English  whaling  captains  accomplished  much  as 
scientific  observers,  as  the  work  of  Captain  Scoresby,  who  made 
seventeen  voyages  to  Spitzbergen,  still  testifies.  Some  account  must 
be  taken  of  Russian  energy,  also.  As  early  as  1648  Russian  ex- 
plorers had  outlined  great  extents  of  coastline,  among  them  being 
Elise  Bush  and  the  Cossack,  Simon  Deshnev,  who  passed  through 
the  strait  afterward  named  for  Bering.  Tcholyuskin,  in  1735,  got 
as  far  as  jy  degrees  25  minutes  north,  and  eight  years  later,  with 
sledges,  reached  the  most  northern  point  of  Siberia,  at  latitude  yy 
degrees  and  41  minutes.  A  Dane,  Captain  Vitus  Bering,  was  ser.t 
out  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1725,  and  in  1728  discovered  from  the 
Asiatic  side  the  strait  now  named  for  him.  On  a  later  expedition 
Bering  discovered  the  peak,  Mount  St.  Elias,  which  he  named.    Ihit 


306  POLAR     RESEARCH 

shipwreck  and  the  inevitable  scourge  of  scurvy  put  an  end  to  this 
expedition,  Bering  himself  dying  in  December,  1741.  Liakhov,  in 
1770,  visited  the  Siberian  Ocean  and  explored  its  archipelago. 
Liakhov  was  a  merchant,  and  his  venture  resulted  in  a  grant  from 
the  Empress  Catherine  to  dig  for  fossil  ivory.  Other  ivory  hunters 
followed,  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Samkiv, 
Sirovotskov,  and  Bjelkov.  being  most  notable  among  them.  But 
from  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  polar  exploration 
came  to  be  recognized  more  and  more  as  a  scientific  project.  The 
English  government  commissioned  Phipps's  expedition  in  1773, 
which  reached  latitude  So  degrees  and  48  minutes,  north  of  the 
central  portion  of  the  Spitzbergen  archipelago.  Here  they  found 
further  progress  barred,  the  edge  of  the  ice-pack  measuring  24  feet 
in  thickness.  Captain  Cook  was  commissioned,  in  1776.  to  search 
for  a  northwest  or  a  northeast  passage,  and  two  years  later  he 
reached  Ca})e  Prince  of  Wales,  the  western  extremity  of  America. 

England  and  luirope.  being  in  revolution,  found  little  time  for 
polar  explorations,  but  in  i8t8,  by  the  influence  of  Sir  John  Bar- 
row, traveler,  scientist,  and  statesman,  then  secretary  of  the  Admi- 
ralty Board,  the  old  Parliamentary  acts  of  1743  and  1776,  which 
had  offered  a  reward  of  £20.000  ($100,000)  for  the  achievement  of 
the  northwest  passage,  and  of  £5000  ($25,000)  for  the  approach 
of  89  degrees,  were  modified  into  proportioned  awards  for  83  de- 
grees, 85,  87,  and  88  degrees,  reserving  to  89  degrees  the  full 
allotment  of  the  previous  reward.  This  enactment  proved  a  great 
encouragement,  offering,  as  it  did,  more  promising  expectation  of 
reward  for  ])ractical  endeavor.  The  favorable  observation  of 
Captain  Scoresby  in  181 7  had  had  its  influence,  and  in  April,  1818, 
two  vessels  under  Captain  David  Buchan  and  Lieutenant  John 
Franklin  v/crc  sent  out  to  pursue  the  Spitzbergen  route,  only  to  be 
turned  back  disabled. 

Another  ex])edition  which  Barrow  had  planned  by  Baflln's 
old  route  of  \()if)  hrtd  more  succc>s,  howex'cr.  Lieutenant  b^dward 
i'arry  of  this  expedition  was  commissioned  the  following  year  to 
make  anrahcr  attempt.  Beyond  Melville  IVninsula  (or  Island)  be 
was  checls'ed  by  tlie  ice-])ack.  Parry  exercised  extreme  care  and 
br(jught  hi^  coin]jany  safely  through  the  dangers  of  an  Arctic 
winter.  Ilis  \( --cN  returned,  to  I'jigland  in  the  fall  of  1830,  and 
late  in  the  '=pi-ii!g  of  llie  next  }-ear  he  sel  out  on  bis  second  vo}-age. 
T!ii>  jj.'irly  winter^'l  i.n  the  eoa.>f  of  the  newly  disco\'ered  MeK-ifle 


A  R  C  T  I  C     R  E  G  I  O  N  S  307 

Peninsula,  66  degrees  and  1 1  minutes  north,  but  the  next  year  was 
spent  in  latitude  69  degrees  and  20  minutes,  at  Igloolik,  among  the 
Eskimos,  from  whom  the  explorers  were  able  to  gather  much  in- 
teresting and  some  valuable  information.  Parry  discovered  the 
channel  leading  from  the  head  of  Hudson  Bay  and  named  it  Fury 
and  Hecla  Strait,  after  the  two  twin-fitted  vessels  Fury  and  Hccla. 

^Meanwhile  the  non-success  of  the  Spitzhcrgen  expedition  had 
not  diminished  the  confidence  of  scientific  men  in  the  fitness  of 
Franklin  for  the  prosecution  of  polar  research,  which  now  had 
become  a  subject  of  national  interest.  In  1819,  for  cooperation 
with  Parry  in  Lancaster  Sound,  he  was  put  in  command  of  an 
expedition  to  Rupert's  Land  and  the  northern  shores  of  America. 
None  of  this  great  region  had  been  touched  except  at  two  points 
by  Hearne,  an  agent  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  by  Alac- 
kenzie,  a  member  of  the  Northwest  Fur  Company,  stationed  at  Chip 
Euyn.  The  expedition  landed  at  York  Factory,  and  proceeded  to 
the  Great  Slave  Lake.  It  was  cared  for  during  the  first  winter  on 
the  Saskatchewan  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company ;  but  the  second 
was  spent  in  "  barren  ground,"  dependent  on  such  game  and  fish 
as  could  be  secured.  The  following  summer  the  party  discovered 
Coppermine  River  and  surveyed  some  550  miles  of  seacoast.  At 
a  point  which  their  leader  called  "'  Turnagain  "  they  started  on 
their  return.  The  suffering  of  Franklin  and  his  party  was  intense, 
but  the  survivors  succeeded  in  reaching  York  Factory,  having  made 
a  circuit  of  5550  miles. 

In  1825,  acting  in  concert  with  Beechy  in  Bering  Strait  and 
Parry  again  in  Lancaster  Sound,  Franklin  established  his  base  at 
Fort  Franklin,  on  Great  Bear  Lake.  Franklin  explored  the  ]\Iac- 
kenzie  River,  reaching  its  mouth  in  1826,  and  coasted  westward; 
while  his  companion,  Richardson,  examined  the  sliore  to  the  east. 
They  returned  in  1826,  Franklin  having  reached  ivclnrn  Reef,  70 
degrees  and  26  minutes  north,  and  Rich.ardson  liaving  followed  the 
coast  of  the  American  continent  through  20  degrees  of  longitude 
and  2  degrees  of  latitude,  and  made  many  geographical,  geological, 
and  botanical  observations  on  the  way. 

The  experiences  of  Captain  Franklin  in  Polar  America  led 
directly  to  Parry's  undertaking  an  expedition  in  \'^2j  to  find  tlic 
North  Pole  by  sledge,  traveling  over  the  ice  by  way  of  Spitzbcrgcn. 
This  was  the  first  attempt  to  reach  tlic  pole  witli  runner-mounted 
boats  and  sledges,  instead  of  navigation.     Parry  left   Sjjitzbergen 


308  POLAR     RESEARCH 

in  June,  and  traveled  to  a  little  beyond  latitude  8i  degrees,  but 
the  crevassed  ice,  treacherous  snow-pits,  and  his  own  heavy  and 
cumbersome  equipment  retarded  the  advance  of  the  expedition  over 
the  pack  sea.  The  thawing-  of  the  ice  masses,  the  yielding  crust, 
and  strong  southerly  current  combined  against  their  progress,  so 
that  after  four  days  they  found  themselves  only  one  mile  furdier 
north,  though  a  distance  of  fully  twenty-three  miles  had  been 
covered.  Parry's  journal  records  his  discouragement,  but  years 
afterward,  in  writing  to  Sir  John  Barrow,  he  reviewed  the  con- 
ditions and  expressed  confidence  that  a  similar  pedestrian  expedi- 
tion, starting  from  Spitzbergen  as  early  as  April,  would  find  it 
possible  to  make  even  thirty  miles  a  day  over  the  solid  ice.  Parry's 
plan  for  such  a  polar  search  has  never  been  followed  as  yet, 
though  a  number  of  reasons  would  indicate  the  open  Spitzbergen 
route  to  be  more  promising  than  west  Greenland  or  the  North 
American  island  fringe.  That  the  latter  route  is  far  more  im- 
practicable of  penetration  by  vessels,  the  experience  of  Kane 
(1853),  Hayes  (1860),  Hall  (1871),  and  Xarcs  (1875)  would 
go  to  show,  while  Parry's  narrative  of  his  Spitzbergen  experience 
records  that  in  the  middle  of  August  a  ship  might  have  sailed  to 
latitude  82  degrees  practically  without  touching  ice.  The  geog- 
rapher. Dr.  Petermann,  believed  in  the  probability  of  this  open 
polar  sea,  and  enthusiastically  advocated  the  Spitzbergen  route  for 
\essel-expc(liti()ns  of  polar  research.  Certainly,  the  prospects  for 
success,  with  strongly  built  steamers  instead  of  sailing  vessels, 
and  otherwise  modern  equipment,  is  much  accentuated. 

From  this  time  on  to  1836  it  would  seem  that  the  Admiralty 
were,  for  the  time,  discouraged  at  the  unsuccessful  efforts  to 
m;ikc  the  northwest  passage.  But  in  1829  another  expedition 
as  a  jjrivate  enterprise,  set  out  for  polar  America  with  a  "'  paddle- 
stcamcr,"  under  Captain  John  Ross  and  James  Ross,  his  ne])hew. 
This  was  tlie  first,  and  as  it  then  proved,  an  unsuccessful,  attempt 
to  adopt  steam  ])Ower  for  Arctic  cx])lorations.  Ross  was  absent  five 
years  searching  the  American  Arctic  seas.  It  is  now  known  that  he 
practical!}-  accomplished  the  northwest  passage  without  realizing 
it,  reaching  tlic  northernmost  point  of  the  American  continent. 

The  i)ro1ractcd  absence  of  the  Ross  party  told  up(^n  public 
feeling.  TIk-  liriti-Ji  government,  in  1832,  contributed  towar<l  an 
ex]X'dition,  whicli  lind  been  inaugurated  bv  Ross's  friends,  and  sent 
Brick    (who    had    been    associated    with    iM-anklin    in    1S21)    on    a 


ARCTIC     REGIONS  809 

mission  of  relief.  In  the  spring  of  1834  Back  learned  of  the  Ross 
party's  safe  return,  but  his  expedition  was  by  that  time  so  fully 
under  way  that  it  was  continued  as  one  of  geographic  and  scien- 
tific research.  He  failed  to  reach  Point  Turnagain,  so  wintered  at 
Reliance,  and  returned  in  safety  to  England. 

The  British  government  was  again  aroused  to  activity  in  1836, 
when  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  petitioned  an  expedition  to 
survey  the  coast  between  Regent  Inlet  and  Point  Turnagain,  which 
Franklin  had  named  in  1821.  Back  was  selected  to  lead  this  expedi- 
tion. The  condition  of  Hudson  Bay  at  that  season  he  found 
bad  beyond  description,  but  resisted  all  bravely  until  his  vessel 
was  disabled,  and  was  then  forced  to  return  to  England.  More 
successful  was  an  exploring  party  under  the  direction  of  Dease  and 
Thomas  Simpson,  which  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  sent  out  in 
1837-1839,  in  pursuance  of  a  plan  of  its  energetic  chief  official,  Sir 
George  Simpson.  In  midsummer  of  1837  these  two  men  succeeded 
in  examining  the  strip  of  coast  from  Return  Reef  to  Cape  Barrow, 
which  Franklin  and  Elson  in  1825  had  left  unexamined.  The  next 
summer  they  traced  140  miles  of  coast  beyond  Cape  Turnagain,  and 
in  1839  Simpson  explored  the  whole  east  coast  beyond,  as  well  as 
60  miles  of  the  southern  coast  of  King  William  Land,  and  the 
shores  of  Victoria  Land.  Simpson  reached  Fort  Confidence  after 
covering  more  than  1600  miles  of  sea — one  of  the  longest  and  in 
every  way  most  successful  voyages  ever  accomplished  in  polar 
waters.  The  death  of  Simpson — he  was  slain  by  one  of  his  own 
men  in  the  Canadian  wilds — delayed  another  expedition  of  explo- 
ration which  the  Fludson  Bay  Company  had  determined  but  which 
was  subsequently  carried  out  with  extraordinary  success  by  Dr.  John 
Rae  in  1845.  Rae's  trip,  made  under  many  disadvantages  of 
equipment  and  hampered  by  voluminous  instructions  from  the 
commercial  company,  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  land  expedi- 
tions in  history ;  and  practically  completed  the  geograpliical  explora- 
tion of  the  coast  of  Xorth  America. 

Thus,  exploration  of  the  Xorth  American  continental  coast 
and  archipelago,  and  the  search  for  the  northwest  passage,  for  a 
time  centered  all  interest  in  the  Arctic  regions.  In  May  of  the 
same  year  in  which  Rae's  extraordinary  expedition  was  undertaken, 
Sir  John  Franklin,  then  sixty  years  of  age,  sailed  from  England 
with  Captain  Crozier  (who  had  already  served  with  Parry  and 
Ross)  for  the  j)urpose  n\  making  llie  northwest  passage.     h>anklin's 


310  POLAR     RESEARCH 

vessels  were  the  Erebus  and  the  Terror,  just  then  released  by  the 
return  of  Sir  James  Ross  from  the  south  polar  seas.  This  ill- 
fated  expedition  numbered  129  men.  Up  to  July  12  dispatches 
reported  their  progress.  On  that  date  they  had  reached  the  Whale 
Fish  Islands  in  Baffin  Bay;  a  whaling  captain  spoke  with  them 
on  July  26  while  they  were  moored  to  an  iceberg  awaiting  an  open- 
ing to  sail  on  to  Lancaster  Sound.  After  this  almost  three 
years  of  silence  followed,  marked  by  growing  agitation  in  Eng- 
land regarding  the  fate  of  the  party.  But  not  until  1848  were 
search  expeditions  fitted  out  by  the  British  government.  Ross, 
Richardson,  and  Rae  all  gave  their  cooperation,  but  the  search  of 
1848-1849  was  without  the  least  success.  In  185 1  Dr.  Rae  renewed 
operation  under  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  He  left  Fort  Con- 
fidence in  April,  and  with  two  men  traveled  on  foot  to  the  Polar 
Sea  at  the  Coppermine.  On  this  expedition  Rae  reached  Wollas- 
ton  Land,  never  before  visited  by  a  white  man.  Rae  joined  his 
boat  party  at  Kendall  River,  passed  Deane  Strait,  and  commenced 
examination  of  the  east  coast  of  Victoria  Land,  reaching  Cape 
Princess  Royal  on  August  6.  Leaving  the  boat,  he  traveled  thence 
on  foot,  arriving  at  his  farthest  north,  on  August  12,  at  70  degrees 
and  3  minutes,  longitude  loi  degrees  and  25  minutes  west,  within 
50  miles  of  the  spot  where  the  vessels  of  Franklin  had  been  aban- 
doned three  years  and  four  months  before.  Thus  Rae.  following 
Franklin,  made  the  nearest  approach  to  the  sea-passage  of  the 
northwest.  But  Rae  was  unable  to  cross  Victoria  Strait,  and  so 
missed  recovering  the  Franklin  records  on  King  William  Land. 
On  his  return  he  found  at  Parker  Bay  the  fragment  of  a  flagstaff, 
identified  as  belonging  to  the  Franklin  squadron. 

It  was  destined  that  the  indefatigable  Rae  should  find  the  first 
direct  evidence  of  the  Franklin  expedition's  fate,  though  not  until 
1854.  At  Boothia  some  Eskimos  recounted  how,  in  what  would 
have  been  the  spring  of  1850,  about  forty  white  men  were  seen 
dragging  a  boat  southward  on  tlie  west  shore  of  King  A\'i11iam 
Land.  Later  that  spring  some  thirty-five  bodies  of  men  were  fcmnd 
by  the  T'lskimos.  The  identification  was  certain  wlien  silver  was 
produced  bearing  the  Franklin  crest,  and  afterward  many  other 
relics  were  found.  In  1855,  Anderson,  while  acting  for  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company,  came  upon  various  articles  rccognizal)le  as  ])e- 
longing  to  tlie  cx])C(lition,  winch,  the  h^kimos  said,  had  been  taken 
from  the  white  men's  boat.     Anderson's  report  confirmed  Dr.  Rae's 


ARCTIC     REGIONS  311 

determination  of  the  fate  of  the  Frankhn  expedition,  and  the 
British  Admiraky,  after  rewarding  Dr.  Rae  and  his  companions, 
relaxed  from  further  investigation. 

The  sea  search  thus  far  had  been  even  less  resultful  than  the 
search  by  land.  The  first  Pacific  squadron,  the  Plover  and  the 
Herald,  had  been  sent  out  in  1848  to  meet  Franklin  with  supplies 
at  Bering  Strait.  The  Enterprise,  under  Collinson,  and  the  Investi- 
gator, under  McClure,  were  sent  also  to  Bering  Strait  in  1850. 
More  persistent  were  the  efforts  made  by  way  of  the  Atlantic. 
Ross's  expedition  we  have  already  recounted.  In  185 1  the  British 
Admiralty  had  sent  out  two  expeditions,  and  private  means  launched 
a  third.  American  interest  and  sympathy  equipped  a  fourth.  A 
fifth  was  furnished  by  Lady  Franklin.  Other  expeditions  followed 
in  1 852-1 853 — resulting  in  many  interesting  and  important  addi- 
tions to  geographical  knowledge,  though  unsuccessful  in  their 
search  for  the  Franklin  party. 

The  fate  of  the  expedition  had  indeed  been  settled  long  since, 
but  settlement  of  the  detail  facts,  and  especially  the  one  fact  of 
the  death  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  remained  a  hope  which  his  wife 
could  not  relinquish.  Without  government  help,  but  with  some 
friendh  assistance,  she  exhausted  her  limited  means  in  fitting  out 
a  small  screw  steamer,  the  Fox,  which  McClintock  and  Hobson 
volunteered  to  command.  It  was  this  determined  expedition  which 
finally  orought  back  to  the  world  the  record  of  Franklin's  practical 
accomplishment  of  the  northwest  passage,  with  the  few  details  of 
his  own  and  liis  gallant  companions'  fate.  Franklin  died  on  June 
II,  1847,  o^  board  the  Erebus,  both  boats  having  been  ice-bound 
since  September  12,  1846,  and  the  ships  were  deserted  in  April  of 
the  following  year.  Officers  and  crew,  numbering  105  men,  started 
overland  for  Back's  Fish  River,  only  to  perish  by  the  way.  The 
record  found  in  a  cairn  at  Point  Victory,  coins  and  some  other 
relics,  are  all  that  are  left  of  the  expedition,  save  for  the  world-wide 
significance  of  its  results  and  the  pathos  of  the  tragic  end. 

The  geogra])hical  results  of  the  search  for  Franklin  were  very 
rich.  The  ice-shrouded  Arctic  archipelago  was  explored,  and  4000 
to  5000  square  miles  of  the  earth's  area  was  mapped  out  with  ap- 
proximate accuracy,  together  with  about  70CXD  miles  of  coast.  More 
and  more  public  attention  was  attracted  by  the  Franklin  search ; 
and  with  each  new  observation  the  Arctic  seas  advanced  in  scien- 
tific interest. 


312  POLAR     RES  E  A  R  C  II 

The  Grinnell  expeditions,  the  first  under  American  direction, 
had  their  origin  in  the  Frankh'n  search.  Henry  Grinnell.  a  Xew 
York  merchant,  in  1850  equipped  two  vessels,  the  Advance  and 
Rescue.  The  expedition  was  under  the  command  of  De  Haven 
Griffith,  and  included  Dr.  Kane.  The  party  reached  Beechey  Island 
on  August  27,  and  examined  the  Franklin  winter  quarters,  but 
returned  the  same  year  with  practically  nothing  accomplished,  ex- 
cept the  discovery  of  Grinnell  Land.  In  1853,  Grinnell,  in  con- 
junction with  George  Peabody.  sent  out  another  party  in  the 
Advance,  Dr.  Kane  in  charge.  The  chief  object  of  this  expedition 
was  the  thorough  exploration  of  Smith  Sound,  the  northern  outlet 
of  Baffin  Bay.  The  Advance  was  stopped  by  ice  in  latitude  78 
degrees  45  minutes  north,  thus  practically  reaching  the  entrance. 
Here  was  registered  in  the  winter  of  1854.  the  lowest  temperature 
ever  recorded  by  man,  100  degrees  below  zero.  Kane's  observa- 
tions of  the  coast  brought  to  knowledge  many  astonishing  facts. 
He  estimated  the  coast  cliffs  at  from  800  feet  to  1200  feet  elevation, 
with  an  ice-foot  eighteen  feet  thick  resting  on  the  beach.  The 
party  wintered  at  Van  Rensselaer  Harbor,  and  the  following  spring 
accomplished  some  interesting  and  valuable  work.  Kane  discovered 
the  Humboldt  glacier,  projecting  from  the  seacoast.  and  explored 
its  face,  which  is  one  hundred  miles  in  breadth.  Scurvy  and  lack 
of  supplies  put  an  end  to  these  investigations.  The  party  were 
forced  to  abandon  the  Advance  in  Alay,  1855.  With  difficulty  they 
made  their  way  to  the  Danish  settlement  of  L'pernavik,  where  they 
took  refuge,  and  were  rescued  by  Lieutenant  Hartstine,  who  had 
been  sent  out  in  relief.  Kane  chronicled  the  experiences  of  both 
this  and  the  i)revious  Grinnell  expedition,  and  produced  a  narrative 
of  such  dramatic  interest  as  to  stimulate  public  enthusiasm  for 
further  ])olar  research.  Dr.  Hayes,  one  of  Kane's  party,  was  also 
convinced  of  the  existence  of  an  open  polar  sea.  Hayes  solicited 
subscriptions  for  a  new  expedition,  and  returned  to  the  Arctic  in 
i860.  He  reached  a  latitude  of  81  degrees  and  35  minutes,  by  way 
of  Smith  Sound,  but  did  not  find  the  navigable  sea. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  earlv  American  explorers 
was  Charles  Hall,  a  Cincinnati  newspai)cr  man.  HaH's  life  reads 
like  a  romance.  Starting  in  the  world  with  only  a  common  school 
education,  he  tried  various  occupations,  from  blacksmithing  to  en- 
graving. As  a  journalist,  he  followed  the  progress  of  the  Franklin 
r.earch,  and  soon  was  fired  with  an  ambilion  to  i^o  himself  to  the 


ARCTIC     REGIONS  313 

polar  regions.  A  popular  subscription  furnished  him  with  a 
modest  equipment,  and  in  i860  he  set  out,  having  secured  passage 
on  a  whahng  vessel.  Hall  tried  the  plan  of  domesticating  himself 
with  the  Eskimos,  and  in  the  course  of  his  life  with  them  traveled 
over  a  considerable  section  of  Arctic  country.  This  first  expedi- 
tion (1860-1862)  resulted  in  no  new  traces  of  the  Franklin  party, 
but  historically,  an  even  more  important  relic  was  found  on  the 
Countess  of  Warwick  Island,  the  remains  of  a  stone  house  which 
Frobisher  had  built  in  1578.  Hall's  second  expedition  (1864- 
1869),  which  included  a  regular  scientific  exploring  party,  wasted 
much  time  looking  for  Eskimo  aid,  but  by  indomitable  per- 
sistence at  length  reached  the  Franklin  line  of  retreat  at  Todd 
Island,  south  of  King  William  Land.  Here  a  human  thigh  bone 
was  picked  up.  Later  a  skeleton  was  found  on  the  mainland. 
Hall  diligently  collected  scraps  of  Eskimo  evidence  respecting  the 
country,  and  the  passage  of  Franklin's  men,  most  of  it  seemingly  re- 
liable, and  a  great  deal  of  it  confirmatory  of  previously  accumulated 
data.  He  also  succeeded  in  getting  together  a  quantity  of  Franklin 
relics.  The  human  skeleton  found  on  the  mainland  is  believed  to 
be  that  of  Lieutenant  Le  Viscomte  of  the  ship  Erebus.  Hall's 
evidence  accounts  directly  for  the  end  of  seventy-nine  of  the  re- 
treating number,  leaving  twenty-six  to  reach  the  coast  of  the  main- 
land, only  to  perish  there  at  last,  if,  indeed,  they  ever  got  beyond 
^^lontreal  Island.  Incidental  to  the  sentimental  and  historical  pur- 
pose of  Hall's  expedition,  some  important  geographical  work  was 
accomplished,  and  the  gap  in  the  continental  outline  between 
Parry's  farthest  point  and  that  reached  by  Dr.  Rae  was  filled  in. 
Tlic  third  expedition  sailed  in  the  United  States  ship  Polaris  in 
1872.  It  reached  latitude  82  degrees  16  minutes  north.  Hall 
met  his  death  on  tliis  expedition,  and  a  year  later  his  companions, 
while  attempting  to  return,  were  rescued  from  a  floating  raft  of 
ice  after  a  harrowing  experience  of  186  days. 

The  expedition  in  1875  under  Sir  George  Nares,  one  of  the 
niost  famous  of  British  explorers,  took  this  same  course.  A 
pedestrian  party  under  ]\Iarkham  reached  ?>t^  degrees  20  minutes 
to  the  north  of  Grinne]!  Land,  northwest  Greenland.  They  found 
no  Eskimos  beyond  the  parallel  8r  degrees,  and  reported  the  greatest 
cold  experienced  as  y2  degrees  below  zero. 

Westward  of  the  great  Arctic  group,  the  ice  which  stretches 
for  a  vast  unknf)\vn  space  northward  has  never  been  traversed  by 


314  POLAR     RESEARCH 

any  vessel.  Navigators  have  onl}'-  attempted  to  follow  along  its 
edge,  measuring  its  enormous  thickness  and  massive  floes.  No- 
where does  it  come  into  contact  with  the  warming  waters  of  the 
Atlantic  or  Pacific  Ocean,  and  only  narrow,  often  tortuous,  chan- 
nels connect  it  with  other  Arctic  seas,  and  the  narrow  and  shallow 
strait  of  Bering  prevents  egress  of  blocks  of  ice  in  that  direction. 
This  ice  accumulation  is  what  Sir  George  Nares  calls  descriptively 
the  "  Palaeocrystic  Sea."  Floating  down  from  the  north  through 
IMcClintock  Ctennel  (McClure  Strait),  the  loosened  blocks  of  ice 
are  sure  to  strike  upon  the  northwest  coast  of  King  William  Land, 
forming  a  pateocrystic  stream  from  ^Melville  Island,  and  abso- 
lutely blocking  any  farther  advance  by  ship.  It  was  this  forma- 
tion that  defeated  Franklin's  quest.  Had  Franklin,  indeed, 
suspected  that  King  ^^'illiam  Land  was  an  island,  and  turned  to 
the  north,  he  might  have  reached  the  western  coast  by  that  route 
and  gained  the  channel  which  follows  the  nortiiwestern  continental 
shore.  At  least  this  supposition  is  reasonable,  though  what  new 
problem  might  have  confronted  him  there,  considering  the  varia- 
bility of  Arctic  conditions,  can  only  be  surmised. 

Still  another  Franklin  search  party  was  sent  out  in  1879,  and 
again  the  expedition  was  one  from  the  United  States.  Lieutenant 
Frederick  Schwatka  and  three  companions  comprised  the  exploring 
corps.  Their  object  was  to  examine  closely  the  west  coast  of  King 
William  Land  during  the  summer,  while  the  coast  would  be  most 
open.  Provided  with  Eskimos  and  dogs,  but  with  only  one  month's 
provisions,  they  left  winter  quarters  at  Chesterfield  Inlet,  Hudson 
Bay,  in  April.  This  light  equipment  gave  them  great  advantage, 
and  in  that  season  they  found  reindeer  and  other  game  quite  plenti- 
ful. Schwatka  and  his  comjianions  crossed  over  to  King  \\''il]iam 
Land  in  June,  haviiig  replenished  their  stores  at  Montreal  Island. 
The  west  shore  of  the  island  was  examined  in  detail  for  traces  of 
the  h>anklin  party,  even  to  its  northern  extremity,  but  little  was 
discovered.  .'\  medal  which  had  belonged  to  Lieutenant  Irving 
of  the  Terror  was  ])icked  u])  and  sonic  Ix-ncs  hchicxcd  to  be  his 
were  brought  back  and  interred  at  l^dinhnnj,)!.  Schwatka's  j)arty 
cxjierienced  tlie  intense  cold  of  70  degrees  below  zero,  within  iwo 
degrees  of  tlie  extreme  frigidity  reported  by  Narcs  for  northern 
Greenland. 

Meanwhile  the  h'uropean  Arctic  had  been  recei\ing  jironounccd 
attention.     The  S])it/.bergen  fi>heries  had  long  x'ielded  \'ery  acctu'ate 


ARCTIC     REGIONS  315 

knowledge  of  those  far  north  but  readily  accessible  lands  of  the 
polar  world.  Indeed,  it  is  interesting  and  surprising  to  note  the 
relative  accomplishments  of  whaling  vessels  and  official  expeditions 
during  the  earlier  years  of  polar  research.  Buchan's  and  Franklin's 
farthest  north  were  80  degrees  34  minutes,  assuming  that  Buchan 
did  not  reach  a  higher  latitude  during  that  last  mysterous  voyage 
from  which  he  never  returned.  This  record  of  80  degrees  34 
minutes  was  reached  in  July  in  "  open  sea  "  near  Spitzbergen.  But 
already  in  the  colder  season  of  May  that  unrivaled  sea  captain, 
Scoresby,  had  reached  81  degrees  30  minutes  on  longitude  19  de- 
grees east  of  Greenwich,  on  the  border  of  the  great  northern  pack. 
What  the  earlier  Norwegian  fishing  captains  accomplished  we  do 
not  know,  for  only  recently  have  their  voyages  been  scientifically 
noted  by  Professor  ]\Iohn.  Captain  Carlsen  circumnavigated  the 
Spitzbergen  group  in  1863,  and  Tobiesen  sailed  round  Northeast 
Land  the  following  year.  Altman  and  Nils  Johnsen  visited  Wiche 
Land  (discovered  by  Captain  Edge  in  1617)  in  1872.  More  ex- 
tended voyages,  reaching  Nova  Zembla,  have  been  made  more  or 
less  regularly  since  1869,  and  Carlsen  in  that  year  crossed  the  Kara 
Sea  and  passed  down  the  Siberian  coast  to  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Obi.  Nova  Zembla  itself  was  circumnavigated  in  1870,  As 
many  as  sixty  Norwegian  vessels  found  their  way  to  Barents  Sea 
in  1870,  and  Carlsen,  in  1871,  reached  the  old  Barents  winter 
quarters.  He  found  the  structure  still  standing  after  almost  three 
hundred  years,  and  collected  some  extremely  interesting  and  well- 
preserved  relics. 

As  a  field  for  scientific  observation.  Spitzbergen  was  selected  by 
seven  Swedish  expeditions  in  the  comparatively  short  period  from 
1856  to  1872.  All  of  these  contributed  to  the  net  results.  In  1864 
Nils  Nordenskiold,  whose  name  is  still  prominent  among  modern 
scientific  explorers,  made  a  careful  examination  of  the  Spitzbergen 
archipelago.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  exploits  in  the  history 
of  exploration  was  his  inland  journey  through  Greenland.  Ac- 
companied by  Dr.  Berggren  and  two  Greenland  companions,  Nor- 
denskiold succeeded  in  advancing  over  this  ])erlious  region  for  a 
distance  of  thirty  miles  from  Auleitsivikjord,  where  he  reached  an 
elevation  of  2200  feet  above  the  sea.  Xordcnskiold  had  already 
shared  in  six  previous  Arctic  expeditions,  when  he  hazarded  the 
famous  venture  uf  navigating  the  seas  along  the  northern  coast  of 
Siberia  in  search  of  that  nortlicast  ])assage  which  had  bafiled  the 


316  POLAR     RESEARCH 

Dutch  sea  captains  of  old.  Nordenskiold  had  already  penetrated  the 
Kara  Sea,  and  had  named  the  excellent  harbor  of  Port  Dickson  after 
the  munificent  patron  of  the  expedition.  A  year  later  (1875)  a  sec- 
ond voyage  covered  the  same  course  with  equal  success.  Norden- 
skiold believed  that  Arctic  conditions  thus  twice  experienced  could 
fairly  be  relied  upon.  In  1878  he  started  out  in  the  Vega,  the  venture 
now  being  jointly  supported  by  the  Gothenburg  merchant  Dickson, 
a  wealthy  Siberian,  Sibiriakov,  and  the  King  of  Sweden.  The  rate 
of  progress  made  by  the  Vega  is  interesting.  Leaving  Port  Dick- 
son on  August  10,  the  vessel  in  nine  days  rounded  Tchelyuskin,  the 
most  northern  point  of  the  Asia-European  continent.  Thence 
steering  southeast  in  an  open  and  shallow  sea  (in  reality  over  a 
continental  shelf),  on  August  27,  the  mouth  of  the  Lena  River 
was  passed.  The  vessel  reached  the  meridian  173  degrees  20 
minutes  west  of  Greenwich  by  the  last  of  September,  but  was  then 
frozen  in.  A  winter  of  valuable  research  among  the  aboriginal 
tribe  on  the  mainland  followed,  and  extended  expeditions  were 
made  inland  from  the  shore.  The  Vega  w-as  kept  prisoner  until 
midsummer  of  the  following  year.  In  July,  1879,  she  renewed  her 
progress  and  in  two  days  passed  Bering  Strait.  Thus,  by  untoward 
circumstances  the  expedition  had  barely  failed  (or,  by  peculiarly 
fortunate  conditions  it  had  almost  succeeded)  in  making  the  north- 
east passage  during  one  season  of  the  year.  The  Vega  pursued  her 
way  down  the  Pacific  to  Japan  and  on  September  2.  1879,  sailed 
into  the  harbor  of  Yokohama.  Thus  it  had  taken  three  hundred  and 
twenty-five  years  to  accomplish  the  task — one  of  the  greatest  world- 
navigation  problems — which  Captain  Willoughby  set  out  to  per- 
form in  1554. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  northeast  passage  includes 
the  long  northern  coast  of  Asiatic  Siberia,  in  itself  a  distance  of 
10,000  miles.  Considerable  exploration  of  that  vast  reach  of  conti- 
nent known  as  the  Russian  Siberian  waste  has  been  undertaken 
by  the  country  most  concerned.  Put.  as  yet,  the  knowledge  of 
Siberian  lands  and  seas  is  limited,  and  has  largclv  been  supple- 
mented by  the  independent  research  of  ex]:)lorers  of  other  nation- 
alities. Arctic  Siberia,  like  Arctic  America,  presents  a  vast 
"  tundra  "  region,  or  treeless  waste,  outlined  irregularly  on  the 
south  by  stunted  forest  lands.  Tlic  soil  still  preserves  fossil  re- 
mains that  record  a  more  equable  climate  in  early  geologic  times. 
Fossil   ivory  beds    and   masses   of  rich   and   commercial   ores  arc 


ARCTIC     REGIONS  317 

known  to  lie  waiting  in  the  earth,  while  millions  of  fur-bearing 
animals  in  the  lower  latitudes  make  this  a  region  of  incalculable 
possible  wealth.  But  the  inhospitable  nature  of  the  climate,  and 
the  rivers  all  flowing  to  the  more  inhospitable  seas,  make  difficult 
the  commercial  problem  of  transportation.  Yet  even  under  such 
conditions,  Siberia,  since  its  conquest  by  Ivan,  has  vielded  rich  re- 
turns, mostly  in  valuable  furs.  Conquered  by  the  freebooter 
Cossack,  Yermak  Timodajev,  in  1578,  it  was  accepted  by  Ivan  the 
Terrible  as  the  price  of  his  pardon.  Permanent  Russian  settlements 
were  founded  at  Tjumen  and  Tobolsk  before  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  as  early  as  1830,  led  by  covetousness  for 
the  rich  furs  exhibited  by  savage  traders,  the  Cossacks  had  pene- 
trated as  far  as  the  Lena  River.  A  few  years  later  a  Cossack 
trader  sailed  down  the  Lena,  levying  a  tribute  of  peltries,  and 
reached  its  western  mouth.  From  the  Arctic  Sea  he  ascended  the 
Olekma  in  1638,  discovered  the  Tana,  and  in  1639  reached  the 
Tchendema  to  the  east.  It  is  hardly  profitable  for  the  present 
purpose  to  follow  the  history  of  these  early  explorations,  which  were 
imdertaken  chiefly  by  traders.  In  1734  there  opened  up  a  new  era 
in  the  history  of  Siberian  discovery,  and  for  the  first  time  scientific 
expeditions  were  sent  out,  mainly  for  the  more  accurate  investiga- 
tion of  the  Arctic  Siberian  coast. 

But  these  eighteenth-century  expeditions  have  been  noted  in 
connection  with  the  northeast  passage.  Early  in  the  next  century 
Lutke,  a  Russian  captain,  examined  the  west  coast  of  Nova  Zambia 
as  far  as  Cape  Xassau,  1821-1824.  The  New  Siberia  Inlands,  dis- 
covered in  1770  by  a  Russian  merchant  named  Liakhov.  were 
surveyed  by  Lieutenant  Anjou  as  early  as  1821.  who  found  the 
ice  to  the  north  so  thin  as  to  hazard  any  pedestrian  excursion, 
and  an  open  sea  extending  beyond  for  twenty  or  thirty  miles. 
Baron  Wrangeil,  also  in  the  Russian  service,  made  similar  investi- 
gations between  Cape  Tchelogskoi  and  the  mouth  of  the  Kolyma. 
All  efiforts  at  extended  investigation  from  the  coast  were  invariably 
stopped  by  the  thinness  of  the  ice.  ]\Iiddendorf  (1843)  '^'^'^'^s  com- 
missioned for  further  inspection  of  tlie  Cape  Tchdyuskin  region 
and  found  open  water  off  the  shore  in  the  summer  of  the  same 
year.  This  practically  completed  the  Russian  survey  by  land  of 
the  Siberian  Arctic,  but  no  vessel  up  to  that  time  had  rounded 
the  extreme  northern  point  and  the  passage  of  the  northeast  Arctic 
seas,  from  the  month   of  the  Yenisei  to  the  month  of  the  Lena, 


318  POLAR     RESEARCH 

had  not  yet  been  solved.  Some  work  has  been  undertaken  by 
equipment.  In  1902,  Baron  von  Toll,  a  rich  Siberian,  attempted 
Russians  in  the  last  half  century,  under  government  and  private 
on  his  own  account  to  explore  the  New  Siberia  Islands  off  the 
coast.  Von  Toll  has  not  been  heard  from,  but  his  party  is  supposed 
to  be  safe. 

In  1875  a  revolution  in  scientific  polar  research  was  brought 
about  almost  entirely  by  an  address  of  Lieutenant  Cliarles  Wey- 
precht  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  navy  before  a  German  scientific 
body.  \\''eyprecht,  in  company  with  Lieutenant  Payer,  who  was 
in  charge  of  the  sledging,  had  made  some  examinations  of  condi- 
tions around  Nova  Zembla  in  1872,  contemplatory  to  making  the 
northeast  passage.  Weyprecht  and  Payer  passed  two  winters  in 
latitude  79  degrees  and  discovered  another  island  group,  which 
they  named  Franz  Josef  Land.  In  April.  1874,  they  undertook 
a  third  Arctic  journey  to  explore  MdClintock  Island.  Abandon- 
ing their  ship,  the  Tcgctthoff,  they  attempted  to  beat  a  retreat, 
dragging  their  provisions,  stored  in  small  boats,  on  sledges.  For 
three  months  they  traversed  the  ice-pack  of  the  polar  sea.  reaching 
the  edge  at  last  in  latitude  yy  degrees  40  minutes  north,  and 
launched  their  fragile  boats  August  14.  Fortunately,  after  two 
weeks,  they  were  picked  up  b}'  a  Russian  sailing  vessel  which 
brought  them  safely  to  Vardo. 

\\'cyprecht  embodied  the  results  of  his  Arctic  experiences  in 
various  important  scientific  works,  and  in  an  address  made  a  strong 
plea  that  instead  of  these  miscellaneous,  spasmodic  efforts,  a  united 
attempt  should  be  made  by  all  of  the  nations  interested  in  scientific 
advance.  Tie  outlined  a  system  of  cooperation  by  which  expedi- 
tions and  stations  established  in  the  polar  world  could  be  mutually 
hel])ful,  eliminating  the  question  of  commercial  or  national  rivalry', 
and  all  wr)rking  together  purely  in  the  interests  of  science  and  the 
elucidation  of  the  many  physical  problems  to  which  a  knowledge 
of  pr)lar  crtnditions  alone  affords  the  clew. 

In  1879  there  resulted  the  International  Geogra])hical  Con- 
gress, which  convened  in  Hamburg  for  the  discussion  of  polar 
question^.  Tn  the  winter  of  1882  TWeyprecht  died  at  Micliel- 
stadt  the  year  before)  stations  of  relief  and  supplies  were  estab- 
li'^hed  both  in  the  Arctic  and  the  Antarctic  regions,  according  to 
tlie  plan  of  the  TTamburg  Congress,  and  of  a  snl)se(jiicnt  one  held 
at   I'ern,  whicli  afforded  a  system  of  circumpolar  cor)])eration.     As 


ARCTIC     REGIONS 


319 


expressly  stated,  the  chief  purpose  was  to  make  accurate  meter- 
ological  and  magnetic  observation. 

The  station  estabHshed  by  the  United  States  under  Lieutenant 
Adolphus  Greely,  in  latitude  8i  degrees  44  minutes  north,  on  the 
east  coast  of  Grinnell  Land,  was  one  of  the  earHest.  This  station, 
on  Lady  Frankhn  Bay,  Grinnell  Land,  was  the  farthest  north  of  any, 
and  was  named  Fort  Conger,  after  the  United  States  senator  w^ho 


had  championed  the  movement.  Amply  equipped  and  carefully 
selected  as  to  its  members,  it  was  destined  to  make  some  extraor- 
dinary geographic  exploration,  and  collected  much  valuable  data  in 
addition  to  important  weather  observation.  Dr.  Octave  Pavy  made 
a  pedestrian  and  sledge  expedition  to  the  extreme  northern  i)oint  of 
Grinnell  Land,  along  the  eastern  coast,  while  other  parties  cxpk^-ed 
the  interior.  Lockvvood  and  P.rainard,  two  other  members,  crossed 
over  to  Greenland,  rmd  on  May  5,  i8<S2,  reached  83  degrees  24  min- 


,']20  POLAR     RESEARCH 

utes  5  seconds,  whicli,  up  to  that  time,  was  the  "  farthest  north,"  and 
frjr  years  was  tlic  most  northern  latitude  to  which  tlie  American 
llai^  had  lieen  carried.  In  Au^'ust,  1883,  the  party  left  Fort  Cong'er. 
in  expectation  of  finding-  a  vessel  in  Smith  Sound.  The  retreat 
ended  in  their  going  into  winter  cjuarters  near  Cape  Sabine,  and 
liere  the  remnant  of  the  party  was  found  in  the  following  spring-  by 
('a])tain  W.  S.  Schley,  with  the  Government  relief  ships.  Bear  and 
Tlictis.  Lock'wood  was  among  the  nineteen  who  had  perished, 
and  Greely  and  his  six  companions  were  rescued  only  in  the  nick 
of  time.  The  work  of  the  Greely  party  was  brilliant  and 
permanent. 

A  decade  marked  by  little  activity  followed.  But  equallv  bril- 
liant and  in  some  ways  more  remarkable  was  a  series  of  expeditions 
undertaken  in  the  years  1891-1906,  all  financed  and  led  Ijy 
Lieutenant  Robert  E.  Peary  of  the  L^nited  States  Xavy.  Peary, 
in  1886,  made  a  reconnaissance  of  the  Greenland  ice-cap,  east  of 
JJisco  Bay,  in  latitude  70  degrees  north,  and  on  his  return  devoted 
,all  of  his  spare  time  to  the  study  of  Arctic  conditions  with  the 
expectation  of  making  further  research.  Li  189T,  he  set  sail  in  the 
Kite,  Airs.  Peary  accompanying  him.  The  expenses  of  this  expedi- 
tion were  largely  met  by  Mr.  Peary  personally.  The  inu']wse  of  the 
expedition  was  chiefly  to  ascertain  the  northern  extension  of 
Greenland.  The  party  wintered  in  latitude  78  degrees  10  minutes, 
on  the  east  side  of  ?\IcCormick  Bay.  Li  April,  1892,  accompanied 
by  Eivind  Astru]),  Peary  commenced  that  brilliant  sledge  journey 
of  T300  miles,  on  which  he  discovered  In.de])cndcnce  Wax  (81 
degrees  T^y  minutes  north)  on  the  northeast  coast,  and  in  prut 
outlined  Peary  C'liannel.  Peary  marked  Xavv  ("lilT,  Academy  \\\\\ 
(latitude  83  degrees  27  minutes,  longitude  C)\  degrees  10  minutes) 
on  July  4,  and  from  this  point  of  v.antage  had  an  almost  unin- 
terrujjted  view  of  the  vXrctic  Ocean,  which  indicated  tlie  rajiid  con- 
vergence r)f  the  eastern  and  western  coasts,  north  of  the  78th  paral- 
lel, and  thus  settled  the  doubtful  question  of  Greenland's  insularity. 
Peary  alscj  re])orted  the  presence  of  lands  north  of  the  mainland, 
at  that  season  unencumbered  with  ice.  i'^rom  Caj)e  York  and  Smith 
Sound.  Peary  made  a  S|)ecial  study  of  the  etlniic  characteristics  of 
the  ])eople  he  found  inhabiting  this  region,  applving  to  these 
iXkiniMS  tlie  ratlier  sentimental  name  "  y\rctic  1  lighlanders  " — by 
which  term  tliey  have  ever  since  (somewhat  confusedly)  been 
know  n. 


ARCTIC     REGIONS  321 

At  that  time  so  protracted  a  stay  in  Arctic  latitude  was  un- 
usual. \Mien  the  party  failed  to  return  at  the  appointed  time,  a 
relief  vessel  was  sent  out  from  St.  John's  in  July,  1894,  which 
returned  in  September  with  members  of  the  expedition,  including- 
the  heroic  ]\Irs.  Peary.  Peary,  with  two  companions,  remained  in 
Greenland.  In  1S95  another  relief  expedition  brought  back  this 
undaunted  explorer,  who  had  barely  escaped  starvation. 

Peary's  next  important  venture  was  in  1896,  when  he  under- 
took to  explore  the  land  masses  previously  observed  north  of 
Greenland,  with  the  intention  of  pressing  on  to  the  Xorth  Pole, 
should  conditions  j^crmit.  He  succeeded  in  passing-  Lockwood's 
farthest,  reaching  Fy;^,  degrees  39  minutes  north.  In  i()oo  and 
1902  other  explorations  followed,  with  llic  Xorth  I*ole  as  the  much 
sought  goal.  Beyond  84  degrees  17  minutes  Peary  could  not  pene- 
trate on  account  of  the  disintegration  of  the  {)()lar  pack.  Idiis  was 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  Pole  made  by  any  explorer  in  the  Ameri- 
can Arctic,  and  it  closely  challenged  the  record  in  the  Asiatic  Arctic, 
though  made  luider  more  difficult  conditions.  By  this  time  Peary 
had  devoted  twelve  years  to  the  most  arduous  phase  of  Arctic  ex- 
ploration, lie  was  now  the  ft)remost  .\merican  Arctic  explorer, 
and,  in  1902,  the  American  Geograpliical  Society  elected  him  its 
president.  Pearv's  accomplishments  in  the  .Vrctic  in  the  years  1886- 
1897  were  embodied  in  valuable  scientific  collections  (including  a 
meteorite  of  45  tons  found  at  Cape  York,  and  he  ptiblishcd  a  volume 
of  narrative  called  "  Northward  over  the  Great  Ice."  Tlic  Royal  and 
the  Royal  Scottish,  as  Vvxll  as  the  Philadelphia  and  the  American 
Geographical.  Societies  all  hastened  to  honor  him,  and  from  each 
of  these  he  received  gold  medals. 

Peary  determined  a  return  to  the  Arctic  in  1904,  and  sub- 
scriptions were  solicited  for  the  expedition.  The  plan  in  outline 
was  to  establish  licadfjuarters  at  a  jxnnt  as  far  north  ;is  his  \-essel 
could  reach,  and  then  await  the  oi)])orttinity  of  fa\-orable  conditions 
for  a  "  dash  "'  for  the  Pole,  ddiis  was  to  be  tnkcn  tip  by  ice  travel 
on  sledges  in  the  late  winter  :i.nd  early  s|)ring,  when  the  king- 
awaited  Arctic  day  dav.Tis.  A  special  ship  ^\as  constructed  after  the 
commander's  own  designs.  ])()werful]y  Ijuilt  and  ecim'pi^ed  for  ram- 
ming the  ice,  since  on  the  initial  fact  of  securing  a  base  far  enough 
north  the  chances  for  success  were  felt  to  depend.  'I'.'irdy  subscrip- 
tions delayed  the  entcrjM-i-e,  and  not  until  July.  T905.  did  the  I'eary 
vessel — the  Rooscz-Lil~>.ci  out.     A  collier  vessel  had  already  been 


322  P  O  L  A  R     R  E  S  E  A  R  C  H 

sent  to  Greenland.  Peary  reached  Cape  Sabine  in  mid-August. 
1905,  the  voyage  so  far  successful,  but  with  the  real  difficulty  of  the 
expedition  ahead  of  him,  in  pushing  his  stoutly-built  vessel  to  tlie 
farthest  possible  point  north  before  establishing  quarters.  The 
waters  of  the  sea  to  the  north  of  Sabine  are  especially  difficult  of  ice 
navigation,  and  completely  baffled  Xansen's  vessel  in  1902. 

Such  a  point  would  bring  the  explorer  about  seventy  miles 
nearer  the  Pole  than  even  the  most  northern  station  in  Franz  Josef 
Land.  This  would  still  leave  about  500  miles  for  the  "  dash,"  in  all 
a  journey  of  1000  miles  to  be  made  in  a  favorable  season  lasting 
less  than  100  days.  An  average  of  about  twelve  miles  would  then 
be  necessary,  regardless  of  the  condition  of  the  ice.  the  party's 
equipment,  or  their  personal  fatigue.  Peary  relied  upon  Eskimos 
and  dogs  for  his  transportation. 

The  first  message  from  Peary  was  the  following  dispatch  dated 
Plopedale,  Labrador,  via  Twillingate,  Newfoundland,  November  2, 
1906: 

"  The  Roosevelt  wintered  on  the  north  coast  of  Grant  Land, 
somewhat  north  of  the  Alert  winter  quarters.  Went  north  with 
sledges  February,  via  Heckla  and  Columbia.  Delayed  by  open 
water  between  84  and  85  degrees.  Beyond  85,  six  days.  Gale  dis- 
rupted ice,  destroyed  caches,  cut  off  communication  with  supporting 
bodies  and  drifted  due  cast.  Reached  87  degrees  6  minutes,  north 
latitude,  over  ice  drifting  steadily  eastward.  Returning  ate  eight 
dogs.  Drifted  eastward,  delayed  by  open  water,  reached  north 
coast  Greenland  in  straitened  conditions.  Killed  musk  oxen  and  re- 
turned along  Greenland  coast  to  sliip.  Two  sup]K)rting  parties 
driven  on  north  coast  Greenland.  One  rescued  bv  me  in  starving 
condition.  After  one  week  recuperation  (jn  Roosci'dt,  sledged  west, 
completing  ncjrth  coast  of  Grant  Land,  and  reached  other  land  near 
looth  meridian.  Homeward  vovage  was  incessant  battle  with  ice. 
storms,  and  head  winds.  Roosevelt  magnificent  ice  fighter  and  sea 
boat.    No  deaths  or  illness  in  expedition. 

Pl-AKY." 

Later  statcmcnis  fr(jm  the  commander  varierl  only  in  this,  that 
they  filled  ou!  the  details  of  the  exjjcdition  ;is  to  dates  and  the  hard- 
ships. The  Rii(isr7\-l!  was  able  to  make  its  \vay  north  to  the  coast 
of  Grant   LaiKl.   \'vi!irh   was  somewhat   farther  north   than   Peary 


ARCTIC     REGIONS 


expected  to  be  able  to  push  his  ship,  and  nearer  the  Pole  than  any 
other  ship  had  been  in  American  waters.  Here,  82  degrees  J/ 
minutes  north  latitude,  winter  quarters  were  established  and  prepa- 
rations for  the  dash  for  the  Pole  were  hastened  forward.  These 
were  completed  by  February  7,  and  Peary  set  out.  Other  parties, 
as  relief  parties,  also  went  out  under  charge  of  Captain  Bartlett, 
Dr.  Wolfe,  R.  G.  ^Nlaroin,  J.  Clarke,  and  3>I.  Ryan.     The  first  part 


FARTHEST  NORTHS 
1906 


of  the  journey  was  accomplished  under  favorable  conditions,  then 
came  storms,  but  still  Peary  went  northward  nnlil  he  reached  S7 
degrees  6  minutes,  or  only  about  20 1  miles  from  the  I'ole.  There 
he  planted  the  American  tlag,  and  h;iving  er^tp.blishcd  a  new 
record  turned  southward.  Put  before  he  started  (n\  the  return,  the 
food  supply  had  aluKjst  given  out.  ;nid  when  t!ie  Kooscz'cH  \v;is 
reached,  only  three  dogs  out  of  the  ..riginal  seventeen  were  leit.  't 
having  been  necessary  to  cat  the  others,  although  the  l^^skimos  h;id 


324,  POLAR     RESEARCH 

shot  about  300  musk  oxen  and  50  deer.  On  the  return  the  party 
encountered  a  severe  snowstorm  which  lasted  over  a  week  and 
during  which  they  completely  lost  their  bearing. 

In  all,  Peary  was  absent  from  the  ship  117  days.  Then  after 
a  week's  recuperation,  he  sledged  westward  to  a  gap  of  about  fifty 
miles  left  unexamined  in  the  coast  line  of  Grant  Land  between 
the  exploration  of  the  Xares  expedition  of  1875-1876  and  of  the 
Norwegian  expedition  of  1901.  This  he  completed,  and  going 
still  further  westward  discovered  a  new  land  near  the  looth 
meridian. 

On  July  4,  1906,  the  Roosevelt  started  on  her  homeward  voy- 
age which  was  an  "  incessant  battle  with  ice,  storms,  and  head 
winds."  Two  blades  of  the  propeller  were  broken  away  Ijy  tlie  ice. 
Then  the  coal  supply  ran  out,  and,  although  the  vessel  was  schooner 
rigged,  sails  were  useless,  and  it  was  impossible  to  make  more  than 
a  knot  an  hour.  On  October  15,  Hebron  was  reached  and  a  small 
supply  of  wood  obtained.  Then  at  Nain  and  Hopedalc  they  got 
more  wood  and,  at  the  latter  place,  a  few  tons  of  coal.  It  was  at 
Hopedalc,  also,  that  Peary  was  enabled  to  send  his  first  message  to 
civilization,  November  2,  1906. 

"Well  did  Peary  deserve  the  credit  and  the  reward  of  being 
the  most  successful  Arctic  explorer  that  had  yet  faced  the  frozen 
north.  Xotwith.^landing  he  failed  in  1906  in  his  great  purpose  of 
reaching  the  i'olc,  he  contributed  a  great  service  to  geographic  science 
in  that  lie  ga\-c  accurate  information  with  reference  to  a  large 
territory  which  had  been  entirely  an  unknown  blank  upon  the  majis 
up  to  that  time. 

Alcanwliile.  in  the  Arctic  seas  of  the  eastern  hemisphere 
enterprise  Iiad  not  been  lacking.  It  is  hardly  i)ossible  in  sliort 
comjiass  to  clironicle  the  achievements  of  all  the  intrepid  explor- 
ers of  all  nations,  who,  in  tlie  ])erio(l  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  have  laid  Arctic  sacrifices  on  the  allar  of  scientific 
attainment.  Certainly  it  would  be  impossi1)lc  to  do  them  full  jus- 
tice, Dutch,  knglish,  American,  Swedish,  Norwegian,  and  German 
activity  in  ])(jlar  re-carcli  marked  tlie  years  from  1S70  to  i^K]. 
In  (S'j.2  Iwoxcning  Swedish  naturalists,  Pjorling  and  Kalstennius. 
left  St.  jollify  for  Siiiith  Sound.  Tliev  were  insufiiciently  equipped, 
and  arc  kn(r\vn  t'l  ha\c  been  in  a  C(jndition  bordering  on  des]:)eration 
when  they  set  out  in  a  small  boat,  Octoljcr  1  _',  for  Cape  karaday, 
I-,!!c-n;crc    Land.      'f races    of   them    were    subse(|uently    found    on 


ARCTIC     REGIONS  325 

Carey  Island,  where  their  vessel  had  been  driven  ashore  in  August. 
But  this  discovery  was  made  after  two  years  had  elapsed,  and  their 
fatCj  so  easy  to  surmise,  has  never  been  definitely  settled. 

But  the  explorations  of  recent  years  were  culminated  by  the 
accomplishments  of  the  Norwegian,  Fridjof  Nansen.  Nansen,  as 
early  as  1882,  two  years  after  graduating  from  the  University 
of  Christiania,  joined  an  expedition  in  a  sailing  vessel  bound  for 
the  Arctic  regions.  In  1888  he  made  that  remarkable  journey 
across  Greenland,  being  the  first  to  track  tlie  pathless  curvature 
of  the  Greenland  ice-cap.  The  Norwegian  Storthing  then  voted 
200,000  kroner  for  an  expedition  to  the  North  Pole  under  Nansen, 
and  on  June  24,  1893.  he  set  out  from  Christiania.  Nansen's 
vessel,  the  Fram  {i.  e.,  Forzcard,  named  by  Mrs.  Nansen,  who  "  had 
the  courage  to  remain  behind"),  was  one  of  170  tons,  especially 
constructed  so  that  it  would  be  lifted  up  instead  of  crushed  by 
the  pressure  of  the  ice-pack,  and  equipped  with  provisions  for  five 
years.  Peary's  expeditions  had  already  established  the  possibility 
of  such  a  protracted  sojourn  in  the  Arctic,  with  proper  equip- 
ment and  sanitary  precautions.  Nansen's  plan  was  a  startling, 
though  thoroughly  natural  and  scientific  one;  namely,  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  North  Siberian  current,  which  he  believed  to  flow 
from  Bering  Strait  across  the  Pole  toward  the  Atlantic,  and  to 
abandon  his  vessel's  course  to  this  natural  drift  for  a  period  of  sev- 
eral years.  That  such  a  trans-polar  current  exists  is  based  upon 
the  evidence  that  driftwood,  supposed  to  come  from  Alaska,  is 
every  year  cast  upon  the  east  Greenland  coast,  and  relics  of  the 
ill-fated  American  vessel  Jcannettc,  which  was  crushed  in  the  ice 
in  June,  1881,  ofi^  the  Siberian  coast,  were  picked  up  eleven  hundred 
days  later  on  the  shores  of  southwest  Greenland. 

The  question  of  polar  currents,  being  the  key  to  so  many 
problems  of  the  general  circulation  of  the  waters  of  the  globe,  is 
an  interesting  subject  for  consideration.  'Jdie  waters  of  llic  surl'acc 
cooling,  become  heavier,  and  sink  to  take  up  their  course  southward 
as  undercurrents,  and  at  last  commingle  with  the  warm  e(iuatorial 
waters  flowing  northward.  These  novthward-ilowing,  warmer- 
surface  currents  are  deflected  in  part  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth, 
and  in  part  by  the  friction  of  the  colder  waters.  They  assume  a 
northeastern  or  eastern  direction,  while  the  cold,  soutliward-flow- 
ing  undercurrents  take  a  southwestern  and  western  direction. 
Volumes  of  fresh  water  are  poured  out  into  the  Arctic  basin  by 


326  POLAR     RESEARCH 

the  great  rivers  draining  the  lands  of  the  northern  hemisphere. 
With  practically  no  evaporation,  and  much  precipitation,  a  light 
surface  strata  is  formed  in  the  polar  seas,  exercising  a  tendency 
to  spread  over  the  comparatively  denser  waters  from  the  south. 
Thus  polar  surface  currents  southward  flowing  are  found,  such  as 
tliat  which  Xansen  now  proposed  to  test,  passing  along  the  east 
coasts  of  Greenland  and  Labrador,  with  a  decidedly  westerly 
course  produced  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 

On  September  22  the  Fram,  in  latitude  78  degrees  45  minutes, 
north  of  the  Xew  Siberian  Islands,  began  its  trip  toward  the  Pole. 
In  ]\Iarch,  1895,  the  ice-clipped  vessel  being  then  in  latitude  83 
degrees  and  59  minutes,  Xansen  and  Lieutenant  Johanson  set  out 
with  sledges  and  dogs  to  advance  still  farther  toward  the  Pole. 
A  month  later,  on  April  8,  1895,  they  reached  86  degrees  and 
14  minutes  on  longitude  95  degrees  east  of  Greenwich,  con- 
stituting an  advance  of  2  degrees  and  50  minutes  over  any  pre- 
vious explorers,  and  only  250  miles  from  the  Pole.  But  now 
they  found  that  the  ice  pack  on  which  they  traveled  was  itself 
drifting  with  a  soutlicrnly  trend.  ^Making  for  Franz  Josef  Land, 
they  wintered  there  in  a  cave  hut,  subsisting  on  bear  and  walrus. 
In  the  spring  of  1896  they  set  out  southward  to  Spitzbergen,  travel- 
ing over  the  ice.  In  June,  X'^ansen  reached  Franz  Josef  Land,  in 
desperate  straits,  but  fortunately  met  with  members  of  anotlier 
party — the  Jackson-IIarmsworth  expedition,  which  had  also  started 
out  in  1894,  but  which  were  provided  with  a  liberal  equipment. 
Xansen  and  Jackson  returned  to  Norway  in  the  Jackson-liarms- 
worth  supi)ly  vessel,  the  IVin'dward.  In  the  same  month  the 
I'nnii  had  arrived  at  Hammerfest,  X'^orway,  the  most  nortlicrn 
town  in  luu-ope.  Tlie  Fnun  reached  as  far  as  latitude  85  degrees 
57  minutes  in  her  drift  with  the  ice,  two  years  after  abandoning  her 
course  to  the  natural  current.  X^o  land  had  been  sighted  north  of 
latitude  8j  degrees,  l)ut  open  water  was  found  in  latitude  83  degrees 
and  14  minutes  Ton  longitude  14  degrees  east  of  Greenwich).  The 
fram  li;id  made  lier  j^erilous  venture  with  marked  success,  and 
returned  uninjured  to  Xorway,  with  her  crew  in  jjcrfect  health. 

Xan-en's  most  important  discovery  related  to  the  very  deep 
ice-co\cre(l  ocean  or  Arctic  Sea  north  of  Franz  Josef  Land  and 
the  Spit/Jjcigcn  grou]),  in  longitude  T40  degrees  east  to  10  degrees 
east  of  Gic'cnwicli.  'Ilie  temperature  of  tlie  waters  i)roved  relatively 
warm  i;i  the  (k']jths  uf  the  ocean,  and  it  possessed  a  rich  animal 


A  R  C  T  I  C     R  E  G  I  O  N  S  327 

life.  The  discovery  of  this  deep  water,  where  formerly  there  was 
behaved  to  be  only  a  shallow  sea,  forces  a  new  geological  view  of 
the  Asiatic-European  continent,  showing  as  it  does  the  existence  of 
a  ''drowned  plain,"  or  continental  shelf,  extending  northward  from 
the  Asiatic-European  land  mass.  The  edge  of  this  shelf  would  indi- 
cate what  the  geologist  would  call  the  true  continent-margin,  and 
the  conclusion  points  to  a  comparatively  recent  geological  period 
for  the  submerging  of  this  great  northern  plain,  now  a  marine 
plateau.  Thus  Xansen's  discovery  gave  a  new  trend  to  speculation 
as  to  the  northern  physiography  of  the  earth  in  earlier  geological 
periods.  Nansen's  research  coordinated  as  it  were  the  mis- 
cellaneous items  of  information  already  pigeon-holed  by  science, 
producing  a  uniform  general  knowledge,  limited,  of  course, 
but  utilizable  as  a  working  hypothesis  and  well  substantiated  so  far 
as  it  went. 

The  prestige  of  the  Spitzbergen  route  remained  undiminished 
and  a  new  method  of  polar  research  was  soon  to  be  attempted.  Con- 
way, in  1896-1897,  had  explored  the  interior  of  Spitzbergen.  and 
for  the  first  time  crossed  that  island  group.  Xathors  completely 
circled  that  archipelago  and  fixed  its  geographical  relations  to 
Franz  Josef  Land.  On  July  11,  1897,  some  Swedish  experi- 
menters, Andree,  an  engineer,  and  Drs.  Strindberg  and  Fraenkel. 
ascended  in  a  balloon  from  the  north  of  the  Spitzbergen  group,  and 
started  on  their  mysterious  aerial  voyage  in  search  of  the  Pole. 
Pigeon  messages  received  soon  afterward  established  their  direc- 
tion of  progress  for  two  days  to  have  been  northeasterly,  but  this 
was  the  last  information  to  reach  the  civilized  world. 

In  the  winter  of  1899-1900  an  Italian  venture  under  the  Duke 
of  Abruzzi,  in  the  Stella  Polaris,  established  favorable  quarters 
north  of  Franz  Josef  Land.  Cagni,  one  of  the  staft',  the  Duke 
of  Abruzzi  unfortunately  being  unable  to  go.  undertook  a  sledge 
journey  from  this  base,  and  actually  distanced  Xansen's  record, 
reaching  86  degrees  33  minutes  49  seconds  north.  This  same  region 
was  the  field  of  American  explorations  in  ^Cj02.  preparing  the  way, 
but  not  immediately  resultful.  In  1898  the  Frani  had  again  set 
out  on  a  polar  voyage,  this  time  under  Captain  vSvcrdru]),  and  in  an 
expedition,  lasting  until  1902,  exj)lorcd  the  American  archipelago, 
and  contributed  important  scientific  results  rcspecling  the  Sir  John 
Franklin  area,  west  of  Smith  .Sound.  A  scientific  expedition  sub- 
sidized by  the  French  Academy  of  Science  followed  in  1903.     The 


328  POLAR     RESEARCH 

Ziegler  expedition  in  the  America  set  out  from  Trondhjem,  Nor- 
way, for  Franz  Josef  Land  the  same  summer,  and  in  the  autumn  a 
Canadian  party  left  HaHfax  in  the  Neptune. 

Of  these,  the  Ziegler  expedition  was  by  far  the  most  important. 
William  Ziegler.  an  American,  was  the  generous  and  intelligent 
supporter  of  this  Arctic  endeavor  to  reach  the  Pole  by  way  of  the 
European  Arctic  Ocean.  Ziegler's  previous  experiment  with  the 
Baldwin-Ziegler  expedition  of  1901,  which  visited  Rudolf  Land, 
Nansen's  old  hut_,  and  Greely's  Island,  but  practically  accomplish- 
ing nothing,  had  not  deterred  him  from  this,  an  equally  resulllcss, 
venture.  Anthony  Fiala,  who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the 
first  Ziegler  party  sent  out.  was  given  command  of  the  second, 
which,  in  June,  1903,  left  I'rondhjem,  in  the  strong  slcam  whaling 
vessel  America.  Conditions  were  unusually  laxorahle  and  the  party 
established  themselves  at  Tcplitz  Bay,  Crown  Prince  Rudolf  Lruid, 
which  gave  them  a  latitude  of  81  degrees  50  minutes  north  from 
which  to  work.  This  ]K)int  was  reached  in  August.  1903,  after  a 
voyage  of  little  difficulty.  Camp  was  established  on  shore,  but 
in  November,  while  a  considerable  store  of  provisions  was  still  on 
board,  the  America  was  crushed  in  the  ice,  and  eventually  drifted 
away  rmd  was  lost. 

In  the  spring  oi  the  following  year  Fiala  made  his  attempt 
to  advance  toward  the  Pole,  but  covered  only  a  few  miles  before 
an  accident  com])clled  his  return.  A  seccmd  start  was  made  almost 
immediately,  but  the  ice  was  in  bad  condition,  and  Fiala  was  com- 
])cl]ed  to  give  that  season's  project  u]).  hiala  was  lircd  wilh 
enthusiasm  to  reach  the  coveted  90  degrees,  or  at  least  to  estab- 
lish a  new  farthest  north  record,  and  iiupatientlv  awaited  passage  of 
the  winter  darkness.  On  March  16,  1904,  ])ro\isionc(l  for  loodaxs, 
he  set  out  with  men  and  dogs,  but  the  best  etfort  of  the  party 
tuade  only  a  few  miles  a  day  over  the  rough  hununocks  and  treach- 
erous snow  ])ockels.  1die  ice  floe  was  continual!\-  breaking  up,  in\ 
<'H-C(junt  of  the  ])luMioinenal  lenipcrature  of  34  degrees  al)o\-c  zero. 
Mctore  six  day-  of  such  niisadx-entiu'c,  the  "  d.'ish  for  tlic  Tole," 
had  degencr.'ited  into  a  game  of  crossing  from  ice-cake  to  ice-cake, 
.and  it  was  diffienlt  to  fnd  blocks  large  enough  to  bear  the  whole 
of  the  smrdl  exploi-jiig  ])arty.  1'hey  hardlv  adwaneed  a  dozen  nn'les 
in  six  da}'s.  At  tlie  end  of  th;it  time  tlie  wlink>  project  was  aban- 
doned until  colder  weather  should  ])ro\'i(le  conditious  more  favorable. 

'J'hese  disappointing  details  were  not  learned  until  the  return 


A  R  C  T  I  C     R  E  G I  0  N  S  329 

of  the  expedition  in  1905.  ^Meanwhile,  in  1904,  Zie.c^ler  had 
twice  sent  Champ  in  charge  of  rehef  expeditions,  which  each  time 
failed  to  reach  Franz  Joseph  Land,  and  returned  to  Norway.  In 
1905  Ziegler  purchased  a  powerful  whaler,  the  Terra  Nova,  and 
again  fitted  out  a  search  party  with  Champ  at  the  head,  but  just 
before  the  vessel  sailed  from  Xorway  Ziegler  died,  having  given 
as  his  last  command,  "  Don't  come  back  until  you  have  rescued 
those  boys."  Champ  on  this  trip  did  rescue  "  the  boys,"  finding 
them  scattered  along  the  coast  at  various  posts,  short  of  provisions, 
but  still  sound. 

In  1904  the  Norwegian  Captain  Ronald  Amundsen  set  out  in  a 
small  sailing  sloop,  his  object  being  to  locate  anew  the  north 
magnetic  pole.  This  had  been  discovered  by  Ross  in  1832  on  the 
southeast  triangle  of  Boothia  Felix,  but  it  was  supposed  to  have 
traveled  a  few  degrees  east,  about  a  thousand  miles  from  the  pole 
of  the  earth's  axis  of  revolution,  since  Ross  had  fixed  its  co- 
ordinates. 

Amundsen,  with  a  handful  of  men,  and  the  Gj'oa,  a  vessel  of 
only  47  tons,  succeeded  in  making  the  northwest  passage,  as  well 
as  in  accomplishing  the  declared  object  of  his  expedition.  Enter- 
ing Lancaster  Sound  from  Baffin  Bay,  in  June  of  1903,  the  Nor- 
wegian captain  followed  Parry's  old  route  of  1S19,  and  reached 
King  William  Land,  that  region  forever  associated  wiih  the  sad 
fate  of  Franklin's  men.  This  was  the  field  for  his  scientific 
endeavors  in  locating  the  north  magnetic  pole.  Amundsen's  survey 
included  the  coast  and  waters  off  western  Boothia,  south  to  King 
William  Land,  and  as  far  west  as  Victoi-ia  T-and.  He  collected 
much  data  res])ecting  the  phenomena  of  magnelic  variation,  in- 
clination, and  intensity,  and  sent  the  results  to  Nansen,  hermetically 
sealed  in  a  metal  tube.  This  survey  accomplished,  Amundsen 
resumed  his  course  in  the  little  single-stick  vessel,  the  Gjoa.  iM-om 
Victoria  Strait  he  reached  tlie  channel  leading  westward  between  the 
Arctic  .Vrchipelago  and  the  American  mainland — the  route  discov- 
ered by  the  Franklin  party,  though  not  credited  t(^  them  until  many 
years  of  search  had  collected  the  pitiful  tokens  of  their  line  of  travel. 
The  GjlJa  is  the  first  to  accomplish,  without  serious  diniculty,  the 
northwest  passage.  It  fijjlowed  the  iM-anklin  course,  and  avoided 
the  hardships  of  ]\lcChu-c's  more  northcrnly  course.  Here,  it  may 
be  said,  the  comparatively  shallow  water  (indicating  in  the  western 
hemisphere  also  a  continental  shelf),  insures  in  summer  an  open 


330  P  0  L  A  R     R  E  S  E  A  R  C  H 

sea,  since  drifting  fragments  from  the  polar  pack  ground  farther 
out.  Moreover,  the  coast  is  "tundra"  land,  or  bare,  and  being  low, 
has  no  glacial  formation  to  fill  the  channels  with  icebergs. 

He  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  River  in  Septem- 
ber, 1905,  and  found  some  whalers  there,  who  were  caught  in 
the  ice.  They  told  him  that  the  political  situation  was  strained 
between  Norway  and  Sweden,  and,  being  anxious  to  learn  what 
had  happened,  as  well  as  to  hear  from  his  family,  he  determined  to 
march  south  to  the  Yukon  telegraph  station  at  Eagle  City.  It 
was  a  700  mile  trip  on  snowshoes,  and  had  only  been  made  once  or 
twice  before  by  trappers.  With  Captain  Magg  of  the  whaler 
Bonanza,  he  set  out.  Four  weeks  later  (December  5,  1905)  they 
arrived  at  their  destination.  The  people  could  not  believe  that  he 
had  made  the  trip  from  Europe  via  the  Arctic  Ocean,  or  that  he 
had  come  from  the  mouth  of  the  Alackenzie  on  snowshoes. 

In  connection  with  the  International  Commission  for  the  Ex- 
ploration of  the  Northern  Seas,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  organized 
an  expedition  to  the  Arctic  in  1905.  For  this  purpose  he  tried 
unsuccessfully  to  secure  Nansen's  famous  and  sturdy  vessel,  the 
Fram,  but  had  to  content  himself  with  the  Bclgica. 

When  the  International  Geographic  Congress  met  at  Brussels 
in  1905,  it  reported  favorably  on  international  cooperation  in 
efiforts  to  reach  the  North  Pole  and  Arctic  efforts  in  general. 

Captain  Cagni,  of  the  Italian  expedition  under  the  Duke  of 
Abruzzi,  reached  in  a  pedestrian  trip  86  degrees  33  minutes  49 
seconds  north,  or  within  237  miles  of  the  Pole.  The  record  of  the 
other  leading  explorers  in  their  northern  penetration  is  as  follows: 
Nansen,  in  April,  1896,  86  degrees  14  minutes:  Peary,  in  April, 
1902,  84  degrees  17  minutes;  Greely,  in  May.  1882,  83  degrees  24 
minutes;  Nares,  in  May,  1876,  83  degrees  20  minutes;  Parry,  in 
July,  1827,  82  degrees  45  minutes;  Hall,  in  August,  1870,  82  degrees 
II  minutes;  Payer,  in  April,  1874,  82  degrees  5  minutes;  Wellman, 
in  1898,  82  degrees. 

It  is  interesting,  but  not  conclusive,  to  note  that  Cagni's  and 
Nansen's  "fartliest"  were  each  made  by  way  of  Franz  Josef  Land, 
while  I^eary,  Greely,  Nares,  and  TTall  all  made  their  records  in  the 
western  hemisj)here. 

The  TIarris')n  Fxperlition,  under  command  of  A.  H.  Harrison, 
left  Atliabasco  Pandinf^.  July  22,  1905,  bound  for  the  Mackenzie 
Delta,  the  chief  purpose  being  to  explore  the  ]\arry  Archipelago. 


'ARCTIC     REGIONS  331 

The  Anglo-American  Arctic  Expedition,  under  command  of  Cap- 
tain Ejnar  Mikkelsen,  sailed  from  Victoria,  B,  C,  May  20,  1906, 
on  board  the  schooner  Duchess  of  Bedford,  the  purpose  being  to 
make  tidal  observations  along  Alaska  and  Banks  land,  geological, 
ethnographical  and  zoological  collections  among  the  western  Parry 
Islands,  and  meteorological  observations  as  well  as  endeavoring  to 
discover  new  islands  as  a  western  extension  of  the  Parry  Archi- 
pelago. The  Danish  Expedition,  under  L.  Mylius  Erickson,  sailed 
from  Copenhagen,  June  24,  1906,  on  board  the  Denmark,  with 
intention  of  going  to  the  east  coast  of  Greenland  and  exploring  the 
region  between  Cape  Bismarck  and  Independence  Bay.  All  these 
expeditions  succeeded  in  adding  to  the  general  knowledge  of  the 
Arctic  regions,  but  discovered  nothing  startling  or  unexpected. 

An  expedition  that  commanded  more  than  ordinary  interest 
during  1905,  1906,  1907  and  1908,  was  one  commanded  by  Walter 
Wellman,  who,  after  several  voyages  by  sea,  decided  it  was  possi- 
ble to  reach  the  pole  with  an  airship.  Extensive  preparations  were 
made  at  the  expense  of  Victor  Lawson,  of  the  Chicago  Record- 
Herald.  Every  modern  invention,  including  wireless  telegraphy, 
was  installed,  but  after  several  abortive  attempts  in  1907  and  1908, 
Mr.  Wellman  was  forced  to  abandon  his  project. 


Chapter    II 

ANTARCTIC  REGIONS 

^S  successive  expeditions  reach  and  surpass  preceding  records, 
/~\  the  incentive  of  emulation  comes  into  greater  and  greater 
jL  JL  account.  The  declared  "  impossible  "  has  been  over  and 
over  accomplished  through  persistence,  increase  of  knowledge,  and 
at  times  (it  must  be  confessed)  through  unusually  favorable  condi- 
tions, which  in  the  variable  Arctic  regions  are  entirely  accidental, 
/vs  Sir  \Y.  Martin  C(inway  suggests,  the  exploration  of  the  Arctic 
regions  will  probably  be  more  thorough  if  the  fortunate  discovery 
of  the  North  I'ole  is  postponed  for  manv  years.  Scientific  in- 
terest has  nt)t  abated  since  Sir  John  Frobisher  expressed  as  his 
view  that  the  discovery  of  the  polar  passage  was  the  "  one  thing 
left  in  the  world  " !  The  commercial  motive,  it  is  true,  died  with 
the  whale  industry,  but  the  spirit  of  adventure  and  the  flame  of 
science  are  yet  alive  in  the  world.  And  when,  in  that  time  to 
be.  all  we  may  know  of  the  northern  cap  within  its  radius 
of  23  degrees  and  2<S  iTiinutes  is  set  down  by  science,  we  have  yet 
at  the  other  extreme  of  the  eartli's  axis,  a  practicallv  new  region 
to  explore,  not  only  within  the  line  circumscribed  by  the  Antarctic 
Circle,  but  in  that  vast  circum])olar  ocean  which  even  so  far  toward 
the  crpiator  as  45  degrees  south  latitude  is  found  affected  with  float- 
ing .Xntarctic  ice. 

The  early  navigators  of  the  sixteenth  century  had  a  vague 
cr)nce])ti(jn  of  a  vast  cotitinent  somewhere  about  the  South  Pole. 
New  Guinea  and  the  land  near  Alagellan  vStrait  were  even  ct)n- 
fuscd  with  it  by  early  geographers  and  explorers.  Tasman  showed 
in  1642  that  Australia  and  Tasmania  were  cut  off  by  water  to  the 
south,  but  New  Zealand  to  the  east  was  believed  to  be  continental 
until  Cook  in  T771  proved  its  insular  character.  Kerguelen  also 
went  in  search  of  the  jjolar  continent  south  of  Good  Tlope  and 
believed  he  had  found  it  in  sighting  the  isolated  island  now  bearing 
his  name.  Cook's  second  voyage  had  this  southern  continent  as 
its  quest,     lie  circumnavigated  the  globe  and  penetrated  southward 


A  N  T  A  R  C TIC     REGIONS 


333 


as  far  as  71  degrees  10  minutes,  but  did  not  find  the  Terra  Aus- 
tralia, as  this  hypothetical  land  was  called.  Later  ex[)lorers,  but 
not  until  the  nineteenth  century,  reached  even  higher  latitudes, 
Weddell,  in  1823,  going-  as  far  as  74  degrees  and  15  minutes  south, 
and  Sir  James  Ross,  78  degrees  10  minutes  south,  discovering 
Victoria  Land  and  visiting  Possession  and  iM'anklin  Islands 
(1842).    In  the  meantime,  William  Smith,  an  English  whaler,  had 


ANTARCTIC  REGIONS 


been  driven  south  of  the  islands  off  the  South  American  coast  to 
the  South  Shetland  Islands  in  1819.  Bellingshausen,  a  Russian 
navigator,  during  1819-1821,  passed  westward  from  these  islands 
and  entered  the  Antarctic  Circle,  discovering  two  small  "  islands," 
Alexander  T.  and  Peter  I.  The  former  is  now  usually  called 
Alexander  I.  Land,  and  is  considered  as  probably  forming  a  part 
of  the  ccjutinental  mass  of  the  Antarctic.  Wcddell,  a  whaler, 
reached  74  degrees,  15  minutes  south  in  1823,  reporting  compara- 


33i  P  O  L  A  R     R  E  S  E  A  R  C  H 

tively  open  sea.  Biscoe,  a  captain  in  the  service  of  the  Enderby 
Company,  London,  discovered  Enderby  Land  in  1831,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  discovered  and  landed  on  Adelaide  Island,  near  Gra- 
ham Land.  Dr.  Biscoe  is  given  the  credit  of  having  first  set  foot 
on  the  southern  continent.  The  eastern  extremity  of  Enderby 
Land  was  discovered  by  Captain  Kemp  in  1833,  and  in  1838 
Balleny,  another  captain  of  this  enterprising  merchant  firm, 
fixed  the  third  angle  of  the  continent  in  what  is  now  known  as 
Wilkesland.  Wilkes,  in  charge  of  a  United  States  expedition, 
explored  the  Antarctic  in  the  years  1839-1840,  and  French  and 
British  expeditions,  under  d'Urville  and  Ross,  were  conducted 
during  the  same  period.  Ross  with  the  Erebus  and  Terror,  whose 
exploits  in  the  Arctic  we  already  know,  reached  78  degrees  south 
latitude  (about  170  degrees  east  longitude),  exploring  the  moun- 
tainous ccast,  which  on  the  Pacific  shore  outlines  the  continent's 
deepest  sea.  Here  he  discovered  and  named  the  volcanoes.  Terror 
and   Erebus,  which   are    12,000   feet  in   elevation   and   still  active. 

Whalers  and  sealers,  besides  the  scientific  exploring  expedi- 
tions, regularly  plied  their  way  to  the  South  Polar  seas.  Gerlache 
in  189S-1899  penetrated  the  frontiers  of  the  ice-pack  and  drifted 
for  a  whole  year,  his  party  being  the  first  to  winter  within  the 
Antarctic  Circle.  Cluna's  "Deep-Sea  Expedition"  was  in  1898, 
pMorchgrevink,  a  Norwegian,  conducted  Sir  George  Newnes's  expe- 
dition the  same  year.  The  company  wintered  at  Cape  Adare  and 
reached  the  region  of  Mount  Erebus  in  the  summer  that  followed, 
this  being  the  farthest  south  reached.  It  was  this  expedition  which 
fixed  the  cocirdinates  of  the  magnetic  South  Pole  /^  degrees  20 
minutes  south  and  146  degrees  east. 

The  Britidi  X'ational  Antarctic  Expedition,  in  the  Discovery, 
captained  by  R.  F.  Scott,  set  out  on  Christmas,  1901.  The 
work  of  this  expedition  corrects  numerous  misconcej)tions  which. 
])revailed  as  to  the  conditions  existing  in  Antarctic  regions.  Since 
tlic  ( x|;]orali()ns  by  Wilkes  and  Ross  to  the  present  time,  it  has 
Iji-cn  tfcnerally  believed  that  Antarctica  was  so  closely  bomid  in 
^vit]l  ice  as  to  rcnrler  its  penetration  a  matter  of  extreme  hazard. 
Capt;iin  Scoit  tells  us  that  in  any  average  February  (midsummer) 
in  tlie  :~oullKTn  henii.-phere  a  ship,  by  coming  directly  south  on  the 
I7?';li  iiuri'ii;i!i,  can  reach  the  great  barrier  without  encountering 
any  ice-pack,     'ilie  information  obtained  as  to  Antarctic  icebergs  is 


ANTARCTIC     REGIONS  335 

both  interesting  and  surprising.  There  are  apparently  few  bergs 
which  exceed  a  mile  and  a  quarter  or  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length, 
or  that  exceed  200-250  feet  in  height— a  measure  which  brings 
them  dose  within  the  dimensions  of  the  large  tabular  bergs  of 
Melville  Bay  and  the  North  Water  off  Greenland. 

In  the  region  explored  by  officers  of  the  Discovery  there 
seemed  to  be  no  clearly  differentiated  glaciers  as  large  as  the  largest 
of  northwest  Greenland.  It  was  evident  that  a  period  of  glacial 
recession  had  been  in  vogue  for  some  time,  but  it  appears  that  this 
condition  has  been  effected  by  a  colder  temperature — too  cold  to 
permit  of  sufficient  pretipitation  to  form  glaciers  of  the  larger 
dimensions  such  as  characterized  the  earlier  periods  of  higher  tem- 
perature. 

In  connection  with  the  British  Antarctic  Expedition,  two  re- 
lief ships,  the  Morning  and  Terra  Nova,  were  fitted  out  in  1903 
and  sent  in  search  of  Scott  and  the  Discovery.  In  June,  1904, 
the  party  was  found.  The  next  winter  was  passed  in  comparative 
comfort  at  MacMurd's  Strait,  and  some  scientific  work  was  ac- 
complished. A  temperature  of  50  degrees  below  zero  was  fre- 
quently encountered,  with  one  record  of  68  degrees  below  zero. 
On  a  sledge  journey,  organized  in  the  spring,  Captain  Scott  reached 
79  degrees  59  minutes  south,  traversing  westward  across  Vic- 
toria Land  to  meridian  146  degrees,  38  minutes  east  of  Greenwich, 
some  270  miles  from  the  ice-locked  ship,  carrying  the  British  flag 
to  the  world's  present  farthest  south,  670  statute  miles  from  the 
Pole.  Another  party  under  Barm,  traveling  to  the  southwest, 
found  that  the  depot  of  supplies  established  the  preceding  year 
on  the  ice  barrier  had  moved  about  608  yards.  Investigation  of 
this  spring  showed  the  existence  of  a  sea  arm  stretching  south- 
ward from  Victoria  Land  to  the  Ross  Barrier.  Early  in  1905  it 
was  feared  the  icebound  Discovery  would  have  to  be  abandoned, 
but,  fortunately,  a  higher  temperature  increased  the  thaw,  and 
with  the  aid  of  blasting,  the  vessel  was  rescued,  and  the  party  re- 
turned. In  March  the  Antarctic  Circle  was  once  more  crossed,  and 
ten  days  later  the  ship  was  anchored  at  the  Auckland  Islands. 
Thence,  on  the  return  voyage,  observations  and  soundings  were 
made,  and  the  Discovery  reached  Spithead  on  September  10. 

The  British  expedition  has  contributed  many  important  re- 
sults, with  unique  biological  collections  and  fossil  flora,  the  latter 
believed  to  be  of  the  Miocene  age.    Geographically,  also,  nuich  was 


8;50  POL  A  K     K  E  S  E  ARCH 

accomplished  in  \''ictoria  Land,  wliilc  the  islands  of  Ballum  and 
Russell  were  proved  to  be  one  and  the  same. 

In  1901-1902  a  German  expedition  established  a  magnetic  sta- 
tion on  Kerguelin  Island.  A  Swedish  expedition,  under  Norden- 
skiold,  reached  Erebus  and  Terror  Bay,  but  lost  its  vessels  in  the 
ice.  The  Scottish  Antarctic  Expedition  was  sent  out  under  Bruce, 
in  1903,  for  the  purpose  of  investigating  oceanic  and  meteorological 
conditions  in  the  W'eddell  Quadrant.  A  French  expedition  under 
Charcot  reached  Patagonia  in  March,  1903,  and  spent  the  winter 
at  W'eddell  Island,  65  degrees  south.  Charcot's  expedition  mapped 
out  the  west  coast  of  Graham  Land  and  proved  the  connection  of 
Bismarck  Channel  with  the  sea  to  the  east. 

The  Bruce  expedition,  meanwhile,  proceeding  to  72  degrees 
25  minutes  south,  on  the  i8th  meridian  of  west  longitude,  followed 
for  100  miles  the  supposed  ''ice-foot"  of  the  Antarctic  continent. 
An  interesting  sounding  was  made  of  3,650  fathoms  e.xactly  at  the 
point  where  Ross's  observation  records  4,000  fathoms,  so  that  the 
latter  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  error.  Gough  Island  was  visited 
and  found  fertile.  A  Swedish  expedition,  under  Nordenskiold. 
succeeded  in  mapping  out  King  Oscar  II.  Land  and  other  islands 
south,  as  far  as  the  66th  parallel,  and  likewise  brought  home  val- 
uable collections,  including  some  rich  fossiliferous  marine  deposits 
and  fossil  f]ora  of  the  Jurassic  and  Tertiary  periods. 

The  observations  of  D'Urville,  Wilkes,  Chun,  Borchegrevink, 
Bull,  Larson,  and  Ross  all  uniformly  bear  out  this  as  a  scientific 
deduction.  Observation  and  deduction  can  thus  go  far  tow-ard 
supplying  a  general  notion  of  this  South  Polar  region,  glacier  cov- 
ered as  it  is,  like  the  island  continent  of  Greenland,  with  low-lying 
country  in  the  interior  and  high  mountain  ranges  bordering  this 
coast.  Oil  the  ea>t  coast  of  Mctoria  Land  the  ice-pack  is  only  ten 
to  twenty  feet  high.  At  Cape  Adare  was  found  a  shelving  beach 
\'.-ith  a  penguin  rtxjkery  in  imdisturbed  possession,  and  no  glacier 
iiiovenicnt  to  the  sea.  lUit  surmises  and  calculations,  alike  specida- 
live,  make  tlie  icc-caj)  C)f  extraordinary  thickness  toward  the  Pole, 
("roll  ex'cn  g')ing  so  far  as  to  estimate  its  dej^th  as  possildv  twelve 
to  twenty-four  mile";.  But  could  ice  of  this  thickness  exist?  .At 
ctTlain  ])oini>  in  (irc-enland  it  is  estimated  to  be  above  6.fK)()  fcrt, 
and  where  llie  ice  slu-c1  is  so  thick  the  temperature  at  the  bottom 
is  prob;d)l\-  near  the  niching  point  on  account  of  the  earth's  inter- 
nal heat,  and  the  pre.-^.^ure  of  the  ice  mass. 


ANTARCTIC     E  E  0  I  0  X  S  337 

While  the  South  Pole  has  not  yet  been  reached,  Lieut.  Ernst 
H.  Shackleton,  commander  of  the  British  Antarctic  Expedition, 
came  within  ill  miles  of  it,  January  9,  1909.  The  expedition  set 
sail  from  Torquay,  England,  August  7,  1907,  and  from  New  Zea- 
land, January  i,  1908,  on  the  barkentine  Nimrod.  The  magnetic 
South  Pole  was  located  at  72:25  latitude,  154  east  longitude.  On 
December  8,  1908,  new  mountain  ranges  were  discovered,  trending 
south  southwest,  and  more  than  100  peaks  were  also  discovered. 
The  party  suffered  terribly  from  the  cold  and  from  dysentery, 
which  necessitated  a  return  to  the  ship  at  Hutpoint,  which  was 
reached  JMarch  4,  1909.  The  conditions  at  the  South  Pole  are 
materially  different  from  those  existing  at  the  North  Pole,  judging 
from  Lieut.  Shackleton's  own  report,  which  is  as  follows: 

"The  geographical  South  Pole  doubtless  is  situated  on  a  pla- 
teau from  10,000  to  11,000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  altitudes  of 
the  new  mountains  ranged  from  3,000  to  12,000  feet,  approximately. 
Violent  blizzards  in  altitudes  88  degrees  showed  that  if  a  polar 
calm  exists  it  must  be  in  a  small  area  or  not  coincident  with  the 
geographical  pole." 

Upon  his  return,  Lieut.  Shackleton  was  awarded  the  same 
gold  medal  recently  conferred  upon  Commander  Peary,  by  the 
Geographical  Society  at  Berlin.  A  new  expedition,  with  Lieut. 
Shackleton  in  command,  is  now  being  formed,  and  if  he  is  able  to 
profit  by  his  former  experience,  his  next  trip  should  result  in  the  dis- 
covery of  the  South  Pole.  It  is  possible  that  Commander  Peary 
will  accompany  Lieut.  Shackelton  on  this  next  expedition,  and  give 
him  the  benefit  of  his  own  experience. 

The  Antarctic  Polar  Record  to  date  is  as  follows: 

1814.     Capt.    Cook    71*15 

1823.     Capt.  Weddell   74:i5 

1842.     Borchgrevink    77  '49 

1898.     De   Gerlache    71  ^3^^ 

1900.     Borchgrevink 7^'-S^ 

1902.     Capt.   Scott    82  :i7 

1909.     Lieut.  Shackleton 88:23  within  in  miles  of  the  pole. 


Chapter   III 

THE  PRESENT  SITUATION 

4k  FTER  300  years  of  fruitless  effort,  the  North  Pole  was 
/\  discovered,  April  6,  1909,  by  Commander  Robert  E. 
X  j^  Peary.  His  last  and  successful  expedition  left  New  York 
City  July  6,  1908,  bound  for  Sydney,  N.  S.,  in  the  Arctic  steamboat, 
Roosevelt,  equipped  for  a  two-year  voyage.  Commander  Peary 
brought  to  bear  the  experience  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  on  his 
selection  of  supplies  and  equipments,  realizing  that  it  was  a  lack  of 
them  which  had  prevented  his  reaching  the  pole  on  his  last  trip. 
The  ship  was  in  command  of  his  former  captain,  R.  A.  Bartlett 
of  Newfoundland,  and  the  crew  was  gathered  from  the  same 
province.  The  scientists  who  accompanied  the  expedition  were: 
Prof.  Ross  G.  Marvin,  who  alone  died  on  the  trip;  D.  D.  McMillan, 
George  Borup  and  Dr.  J.  W.  Goodsell, 

Reaching  Sydney,  July  17,  the  real  journey  was  begun,  and 
after  a  successful  voyage  Cape  York  was  reached  August  i.  After 
encountering  some  difficulty  from  the  ice  floes,  the  Roosevelt  was 
finally  established  in  winter  quarters  at  Cape  Sheridan,  Grant 
Land,  September  I.  Here  the  little  party  made  extended  prepara- 
tions for  the  long,  dark  winter,  the  commander  knowing  how  neces- 
sary it  was  to  keep  his  party  in  good  health  and  spirits.  While 
provisions  were  taken  on  land  and  shelter  constructed  to  provide 
against  accident,  the  steamer  was  lived  in,  not  only  by  the  com- 
mander and  his  crew,  but  by  the  eskimos  whom  he  had  brought 
with  him.  One  of  the  serious  difficulties  that  began  to  confront 
Commander  Peary  as  early  as  November  i,  was  the  dying  of  his 
dogs.  Upon  them  so  much  depended  that  he  exhausted  every  effort 
to  save  them,  but  lost  many  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts. 

At  last,  after  the  tiring  wait,  on  February  22,  Commander 
Peary  left  the  Roose7rIt  to  begin  his  march  for  the  goal  toward 
which  he  had  struggled  for  twenty-five  years.  On  March  i,  1909, 
Commanfjer  Peary  left  Cape  Cohnnbia  with  several  supporting  par- 
ties of  white  men  and  eskimos.     His  equipment  consisted  of  nine- 

338 


THE     PRESENT     STTUATTON 


139 


teen  sleds  and  133  dogs.  Captain  Bartlett  led  the  first  supporting 
party;  Goodsell  and  McMillan  also  commanded  others,  but  on 
March  14  they  were  sent  back  to  Cape  Columbia.  Matthew  Hen- 
sen,  who  had  accompanied  Commander  Peary  upon  several  former 
voyages,  was  chosen  to  go  ahead  for  the  advance  work.  His  physi- 
cal strength  and  ability  to  manage  the  dogs  made  him  the  best  man 
for  this  work,  and  he  was  with  Commander  Peary  on  the  final  dash 
for  the  pole.     On  March  22  they  passed  the  record  of  86:14  made 


by  Fridjof  Nansen ;  on  March  23,  86:34  of  the  Abruzzi  expedition, 
and  on  March  24,  86:38  was  reached.  Captain  Bartlett  was  once 
more  in  the  lead  when  the  expedition  left  86:38,  but  soon  thereafter 
he  was  sent  back.  Commander  Peary,  Henson  and  four  eskimos 
going  on  alone.  In  starting  out  on  this  last  march,  Commander 
Peary  carefully  selected  his  provisions,  taking  along  enough  for 
forty  days,  and  he  had  with  him  only  the  best  of  the  remaining 
dogs. 


340 


POLAR     RESEARCH 


They  made  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  miles  a  day,  passing  the 
88  parallel,  April  2 ;  the  89  parallel  April  4,  and  April  6,  the  90 
parallel  was  reached.  In  speaking  of  this  Commander  Peary  de- 
clares that  he  was  too  exhausted  to  experience  any  great  emo- 
tions, aside  from  the  satisfaction  which  must  come  of  a  long  at- 
tempted task  completed.  He  spent  about  thirty  hours  making 
his  observations  and  resting  for  the  return  trip,  then  having  left 
the  flag  of  his  country  behind  him,  he  set  out  to  rejoin  his  com- 


Farthest  North ^ 


panions.  Commander  Peary  csta1)lishcd  beyond  any  doubt  the 
fact  that  there  is  no  land  within  the  90  parallel.  The  vast  expanse 
of  ice  extended  on  every  side.  Fortunately  the  weather  favored 
the  taking  of  observations,  so  that  he  did  not  have  to  delay,  but 
started  back  on  A])ril  7. 

In  spite  r)f  their  fatigue,  the  return  trip  was  made  without  any 
serious  accident^,  anrl  Commander  TVary  reached  Cape  Columbia, 
April  23.     I'our  days  later  he  arrived  at  Cape  Sheridan,  to  be  met 


THE     PRESENT     SITUATION  341 

with  the  news  that  Ross  G.  Marvin  had  met  his  death  by  drowning 
on  April  lo.  As  soon  as  the  Roosevelt  was  clear  of  the  ice,  the 
expedition  set  sail  from  Cape  Sheridan,  leaving  July  i8,  reaching 
Indian  Harbor,  September  5.  From  there  Commander  Peary  cabled 
word  to  the  United  States  of  his  success.  His  arrival  in  the 
United  States  on  September  2^  was  made  an  occasion  of  paying 
him  distinguished  honors.  On  October  20,  Commander  Peary  sub- 
mitted his  data  to  the  committee  appointed  by  the  National  Geo- 
graphical Society  for  that  purpose,  and  after  it  had  carefully  con- 
sidered it,  report  was  made  November  3,  that  the  records  corrob- 
orated Commander  Peary's  claims.  The  following  day  the  Na- 
tional Geographical  Society  adopted  the  following  resolutions: 

"Whereas,  Commander  Robert  E.  Peary  has  reached  the  North 
Pole,  the  goal  sought  for  centuries ; 

"Whereas,  This  is  the  greatest  geographical  achievement  that 
this  society  can  have  opportunity  to  honor;  therefore, 

"Resolved,  That  a  special  medal  be  awarded  to  Commander 
Peary. 

"Resolved,  That  the  question  of  whether  or  not  any  one 
reached  the  pole  prior  to  1909  be  referred  to  the  committee  on  re- 
search, with  instructions  to  recommend  to  the  board  of  managers 
a  sub-committee  of  experts  who  shall  have  authority  to  send  for 
papers  or  make  such  journeys  as  may  be  necessary  to  inspect 
original  records,  and  that  this  action  of  the  society  be  communi- 
cated at  once  to  those  who  may  have  evidences  of  importance." 

The  society  awarded  Commander  Peary  a  special  gold  medal, 
and  further  bestowed  a  medal  upon  Captain  Bartlett. 

The  necessity  for  examining  into  other  records  to  determine 
whether  Commander  Peary  was  the  first  to  reach  the  pole,  was 
occasioned  by  a  claim  made  by  Dr.  Frederick  A.  Cook,  on  Septem- 
ber I,  1909,  that  on  April  21,  1908,  he  had  reached  the  pole.  He 
had  left  Gloucester,  Mass.,  July  i,  1907,  in  the  schooner  yacht 
John  R.  Bradley.  He  and  a  store  of  supplies  were  latulcd  a  little 
north  of  Etah  late  in  August.  Here  he  wintered  with  a  white  man 
named  Rudolph  Francke.  Dr.  Cook  claimed  to  have  made  the  final 
dash  to  the  pole  with  two  eskimos.  Coming  back,  he  spent  the 
winter  at  Cape  Spardo,  from  whence  on  February  18,  1909,  he 
pushed  on  southward,  arriving  at  Copenhagen,  September  4,  where 
he  was  enthusiastically  received.  After  liis  arrival  in  the  United 
States,   September  21,   he  went   over  the  country  lecturing.     The 


;U2  POLAR     K  E  8  E  A  R  C  H 

controversy  over  his  claims  and  those  of  Commander  Peary  was 
bitter,  but  the  matter  was  finally  decided  by  the  University  of 
Copenhagen,  to  which  Dr.  Cook  had  submitted  his  records,  that 
they  did  not  substantiate  his  contention  of  the  discovery  of  the 
pole.  After  dispatching  his  secretary  with  his  records.  Dr.  Cook 
disappeared,  and  thus  far,  in  ^lay,  1910,  his  whereabouts  are  not 
known. 

Commander  Peary  is  now  lecturing  in  Europe,  and  everywhere 
he  is  meeting  with  the  distinguished  honor  that  is  his  due.  During 
the  first  week  in  May  he  visited  Berlin,  where  he  was  decorated 
with  the  gold  medal  of  the  German  Geographical  Society,  which 
is  the  highest  honor  within  their  gift. 

The  Polar  Record  to  1910  is  as  follows: 

1827.     Parry    82 :45 

1871.     Hall 82:11 

1874.     Peyer    82  :o5 

1876.     Nares    83 :2o 

1879.     DcLong    77:15 

1891.     Peary    83 :24 

1896.     Nanscii    86  :i4 

1898.     Wcllman 82 : 

1900.     Abru;^zi     8^1  -,2;^ 

1900.     Cazni '^^^'■33 

1902.     Peary    84 :  17 

1904.     Fiala   83  :i3 

1906.     Peary    87  :o6 

1909.     Peary    90 :        ( Pole.) 

During  1909,  Count  Zcpj)clin  began  preparations  to  try  and 
discover  the  ])ole  with  one  of  his  airships.  I'his  i)roject  met  with 
the  approval  of  the  German  emperor,  but  nothing  definite  resulted 
of  the  plans. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


A  very  full  bibliography  of  Scandinavia,  such  as  would  interest  the  special- 
ist or  serious  student,  cataloguing  all  important  works  in  English,  is  already 
available  from  the  labors  of  Thorvold  Solberg  of  the  Library  of  Congress,  and 
appears  as  an  appendix  to  Horn's  important  "  History  of  the  Scandinavian 
North"  (translated  by  Anderson,  S.  C.  Griggs  &  Company,  Chicago,  ^883). 
But  such  a  list  would  be  bewildering  to  the  general  reader.  Moreover,  the 
years  since  Solberg's  list  have  added  to  the  literature  of  the  subject  many 
interesting  and  very  valuable  books.  The  titles  below  include  practically  all 
recent  publications  of  any  note,  besides  making  a  general  selection  from  the 
older  standard  works  dealing  with  the  Scandinavian  people. 


HISTORY   AND    BIOGRAPHY 

Alberg,  A. — "  Gustavus  Vasa  and  his   Stirring  Times."     London,  1883. 

Popular,  readable. 
Allen,    C.    F. — "  Haaiidhog   i   Faedrelaiidets   Historic."      Copenhagen,    1863. 
Bain,    F.    W. — "  Christina,    Queen    of    Sweden."      London,    1889. 
Bain,   R.   N. — "Gustavus   III   and  his   Contemporaries."     2  vols.     London,   1894. 
"Charles  XII   and   the   Collapse   of  the   Swedish  Empire."      ("Heroes  of 
the  Nations"  series.)      London,   1895. 
"  Scandinavia."     Cambridge,   1905. 

This  important  work  is  a  political  history  of  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden 
dtiring  the  years  1515-1900. 
Boyesen,  Hjalmar  H. — '"  The   Story  of  Norway."     New  York,   1892. 

An   excellent   general   history   of   Norway,   with    emphasis    on    the    dramatic 
phases.     Preserves  an   interesting  narrative   style. 
Chapman,    B.— "  Gustavus    Adolphus    and    the    Thirty    Years'    War."      London, 
185G. 
Oat  of  print,  but  standard. 
Dahlman,  F.  C- — "  GcscJiichtc  z'on  Danemark  hia  zur  Reformation,  mit  Iiihegriff 
van  Norivep,cn   und  Island."     3  vols.     Hamburg,   1840-1843. 
A    standard   work   on    Denmark,   but   deals   exclusively   with   the    events   of 
the   Middle   Ages. 
Dodge,    Lt.-Col.    Tlieodore   A. — "Gustavus    Adolphus."     Boston. 
Du   Chaillu,   l^aul. — "  The  Viking  Age."     2  vols.     New  York. 

As  (Ic^crilifcl  in  the  author's  sub-title  this  book  deals  with  the  early  hi'-tory, 
maniiers   and  customs  of  the  ancestors  of  the    luiglish-speaking  nations. 
Dunham.  .S.  A. — "  History  of  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway."     3  vols.     London, 
1840. 
Long   the    standard    general    history    in    k'nglish. 
Dysing,   Job. — "  Kongerigct   Nurgr."     Christiana,   1890. 

345 


346  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Eden,    Nils. — '"  Sweden    for    Peace ;    the    Programme    of    Sweden   in    the   Union 

Crisis."     1905. 
Fahlbeck,    P. — "  Coiistitutioii   Siicdiusc  I't   Ic  raylemaitayisinc  Modcrnc."    Paris, 

i(j05. 
Flitcher,  C.  R.  L. — "  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  the  Struggle  of  Protestantism  for 
Existence."      ("Heroes   of  tlie   Nations"   series.)      New   York,   tSqi. 
A  very  readable  and   sympathetic  discussion  of  its   subject,  containing  also 
an    unusually    good    introductory    chapter    on    the    early    history    of    Scandi- 
navia. 
Fryxell,  Anders. — "  The  History  of  Sweden."     Edited  by  Mary  Howitt.     2  vols. 
London,   1844. 
Translated  from  the  Swedish.     Popular,  but  deals  only  with  Sweden  before 
1612.      This    is   an   "  out   of   print "'    book    though    one    of   standard    literary 
value. 
Gallenga,    Antonio. — ''  The    Invasion   of   Denmark    in    1864."     2   vols.     London, 

1864. 
Geijer,   E.   J.,   and   Carlson,   F.    F. — "  Geschichtc   ScJizvcdais."     5   vols.     Gotha, 

1844-1875.. 
The  most  important  history  of  Sweden,  but  unfortunately  out  of  print  in 
the  original  and  not  yet   accessible  in   English. 

Gosch,   Charles  A. — "  Denmark  and   Germany  since   1815."     London,   1862. 

An  important  work  dealing  with  the  events  preceding  the  Slesvig-Hol- 
stein  War.     Pro-Danish   in   sympathies  hut  on  the  whole  not  unjust. 

Hover,   M. — "  Kcnningariket   Svcri^c."     4   vols.     Stockholm,    1875-1884. 
Of  standard  value  on   Scandinavian  history. 

Keary,   C.    I'. — "  The  Vikings  of  Western   Christendom."     New   York,    1891. 

.'\  good  historic  account  of  the  formative  period  of  the  Scandinavian  peo- 
ples, affording  a  view  of  their  relation  to  the  rest  of  luirope  in  the  eighth 
and   ninth   centuries. 

Laing,    Samuel. — "The   Heimskungla   or   Chronicles   of   the   Kings   of   Norway." 
Translated    from   the   Icelandic    of    Snorri    Sturlasson.      3    vols.      London, 

1844. 

Originally  written  in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  this  chronicle  is 
close  to  the  events  it  describes.  The  earliest  traditions  are  recorded  in 
the  form  of  a  collection  of  sagas,  the  chronicler  filling  in  the  narrative 
down  to  his  own  wild  tinit-s.  The  work  has  been  translated  into  various 
language^.     The  edition  by  i^aing  contains  a  very  \aluable  introduction. 

Maurer,    Konrad. — "Island  von   seiner  ersten   luitdeekung   Ins  cn)n    Untergaitge 
des   J-reistaates."     Munich,    1874. 
Con>idered  the  best  single  book  on   Iceland. 

Montelius.    Prof.    Oscar. — "  Civilization    of    Sweden    in    Heathen    Times."      New 
York,    i8«8. 
A  good  tnatment  of  the  early  history,  with  map  and  many   illustrations. 

Monteliii-,   ( ).,    I  lildebrand,   II.,  and  others. — "  Sz'eriges  I  listeria  fra)i   iildsta    Yid 
till  z-(ira  l)a<iar."     .Stockholm,   l877-i8<Si. 

Munch,   P.    .A. — "  Det   Korske  I'olks  IJistorie."     6  vols.      Christiana,    1S5J. 

Naii-i-n,    ]''ri(]tj(jf. — "Norway   and    the    Union    with    .Sweden."      New    \'ork,    i(;05. 
■■  Siippli-nirntary    Chapter."      Issued    in    pa])er    the    same    year. 

Nitl-cu,    \'ngvar. — "  Xari^es    Histurie   efter    iSi.j."      Christiana,    1882. 

Nordlniid,     Karl. — ■■' 'i'lic     .Swedish-Norwegian     Union     Crisis,    a     History     with 
1  )oi  luiieiii-.."      1005. 

Overland,    <  ).    A .   -"  I lliLstrerct    Xorj^es    IHsti>ri,\"      Christian;!,    l885-i8(;4. 

Ryilfi-is,    A.     "  Kuiiung    Uskar   II    uJi    S:-en^es    I-'tdk."      Stockholm,    i8(>7. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  347 

Sars,  J.  E. — "  Udsigt  over  den  Norske  Historic."     2  vols.     Christiana,  1877. 
Saxo-Grammaticns. — First   Nine   Books   of  the   "  Danish   History."     Translated 
by  Oliver  Elton.     London,  1894. 
With  notes  by  F.  York  Powell  on  the  sources,  methods  and  lore  of  Saxo 
(twelfth   and   thirteenth   centuries.) 
Schefer,  Charles. — "  Les  Etats  Scandinaves  de  1815  a  1847;  dc  1848  h  18/0;  de 
1870  a  nos  jours."     Paris,  1898- 1899. 
These   constitute   volumes   X-XII   of  the   great   "  Histoirc   Generate'' 
Seignobos,  Charles. — ''  Political  History  of  Contemporary  Europe."     New  York, 
1897. 
Important  to  consult  for  the  portion  dealing  with  Scandinavian  affairs. 
Sidgwick,    Charles    (Mrs.    Arthur). — "The    Story    of    Norway."      ("Historical 
Handbooks"  series.)      London,   1890. 
Popular  in  style. 
Stevens,    Dr.    J.    L. — "  The    History    of    Gustavus    Adolphus    and    his    Time." 

London,    1885. 
Thomas,  Margaret. — "  Denmark  Past  and  Present."     London,   1902. 
Thomsen,    Vilhelm. — "  The    Relations    Between    Ancient    Russia    and    Scandi- 
navia."    London,    1877. 
Lectures  delivered  at  the  Taylor  Institution,  Oxford,  in  May,  1876. 
Trench,  Archb.   R.   C. — "  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Germany."     London,   1886. 
Watson,   Paul  B. — "  The   Swedish   Revolution  under  Gustavus  Vasa."     Boston, 
1889. 
Contains  an  exhaustive  bibliography. 
Weitemeyer,   H. — "  Denmark."     London,   1891. 

A  general  treatment,  including  the  history,  topography,  language,  literature, 
art  and  culture  of  the  Danes. 
Wheaton,   Henry. — "  History   of  the   Northmen,   or  Danes  and   Normans,   from 
the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Conquest  of  William  of  Normandy.     London. 
Wheaton    was    American    Charge    d'Affaires    at    Copenhagen.      His    work 
makes  use  of  good  authorities  and  has  an  established  rank  of  importance. 
Wilson,  T.  B. — "History  of  the  Church  and  State  in  Norway."     London,  1903. 
Worsaae,  J.  J.  A. — "  The  Danes  and  Northmen  in  England,  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land."    London,  1852. 
Translation  of  the  report  of  the  commission  appointed  by  Christian  VIH 
of  Denmark  to  investigate  the  historical  remains,  memorials,  etc.,  of  Danes 
and   Norwegians  in  the  British  Isles. 


TRAVEL   AND   GENERAL   DESCRIPTION 

Anderson,  Rasmus  B. — "  Norse  Mythology."     2d  Ed.     Chicago,  1878. 

An  interesting  and  valuable  summary  containing  all  the  mytlis  and  Eddas 
carefully  systematized  and  interpreted,  with  introduction  and  convenient 
vocabulary   and   index. 

Asbjornsen,  P.  C.  and  Moe,  J. — "Norse  Folke-og  Huldre-cventyr  eg  Folkesagn" 
C-opcnhagen,    1879. 
A   collection  of   Norwegian   folk-tales. 

Baring-Gould,  Sabine. — "  Iceland,  its  Scenes  and  Sagas."     London,  1873. 

One  of  the  best  popular  modern  descriptions  of  Iceland.  Rather  more 
detail  and  voluminous  in  its  information  than  tlie  general  reader  requires 
on  its  limited  subject,  but  written  in  an  interesting,  readable  style  and 
excellent  for  general  reference. 


348  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Boyeseii,  li.  H. — "Essays  on  Scaiulinavian  Literature."  New  York,  ]S()5. 
Kradshaw,  J. — ""  Norway:  Its  Fjords,  Fjelds  and  I'asses."  London,  1896. 
Broehner,  Jessie  H. — "  Danish  Life  in  Town  and  Country."     London,   IQ03. 

Attractively  written  and  affords  the  reader  an  excellent  idea  of  the   Danes 

from  every  point  of  view. 
Brown,   Dr.   J.    C. — "  People   of   Finland   in    Archaic   Times." 
Chapman,    .-Xhel. — "  Wild   Norway."     London,    1807. 

With    chapters   on    Spitzber,i,HMi,    Denmark,    etc. 
Curtis,    W.    E. — "  Denmark,    Norway    and    Sweden."      Akron,    O.,    ic)03. 

An   interesting  volume,  well   illustrated,  presenting  a   general  view  of  these 

countries   as  they   appear  to-day. 
Du  Chaillu,   Paul. — "  The  Land  of  tlie  ^^lidniglit  Sun."     New  York,   i88j. 
"  The  Land   of  the  Long  Night."     New  York,   1900. 

Accounts  of  journeys  in  the  north  countries,  profusely  illustrated  and   sup- 
plied   with   maps. 
Forbes,  James  D. — "  Norway  and  Its  Glaciers."     London,  1853. 

Accomit  of  a  visit  in   1851.     Maps  and  color  plates  add  interest  to  the  text, 
lieidenstam,   O.   G.   von. — "  Swedish   Life   in  'i'own   and   Country."      New   York, 
1904. 

Furnishes  a  complete  picture  (if  the   social  and  political  life  of  Sweden  to- 
day.    Chapters   on  early   art  and   culture,   literature,   education,   modern   art, 

etc.,    etc.,    valuably    supplement    the    description    of    the    people    and    their 

country. 
Horn,   I\   W. — "llistorj'  of  the   Literature   of  the    Scandinavian    North."      1884. 

Translated  by  R.   B.  Anderson.     This  buok  also  contains  a  bibliography  of 

the  important  books   in   the   luiglish   language   relating  to  the   Scandinavian 

countries  prepared  by  'ih.orvald   Solberg. 
Ilylten-Cavallius,   G.   O. — "  U'iireiid  ocJi    U'iiidanic."     2  vols.      Stockholm.    1808. 

A   contribution  to  the   folk  lore   of   Sweden,   e>i)ecially   rich   in   superstitions 

and   charm-;. 
Ilyne,    C.    J.    C. — "Through    Arctic    Lapland."      London,    1899. 
Jungman.    B. — "Norway."      New    York.    1005. 

A   siunptuous  volume  descri])tive  of  travels   in    Norway. 
Kennedy,    E.    B. — "Thirty    Sea-^ous    in    .Scandinavia."      London,    1903. 
Kounv   and   Fischer.—"  Norway."     Christian:i.    1900. 
Lee,  J.  A. — '■  Peaks  and   Pines."     London,    1890. 

Maurer.   Konrad. — "  Is!a)idisclir  I'olkasLV^cii  dcs  (jc^^rmcart  i^c'sajiiinclt  iind  vcr- 
dcntsrhl."     Leip-ic,  i860. 

Extremely  valuable  on  the  popular  traditions  of  the   North  and  the  general 

study   of   modern    folk-lore. 
Aliillcr,    .S.    C). — "  Xordischc    AUcrtumskiindr."      Strassburg,    1897. 

Liiportant    for    ethnologic    reference. 
"  X<iy['rs  Land  n;j,   Fulk."     Christiana,    1885. 

lu    many    \o]n!ncs.    not    yet    crinipK-ted. 
Ny^trr,ni,    J.    l"r. — "  Ifaiidbok    i   .S'r  (■;'/.<.; <'J    (;,'o;^raft."      .Stoekb.olm,    1895. 

.•\    -taudai'd    work   df   n-fcrencf. 
"Norway."  —  nrficia!    publication,    in    l-jiglisji,    f.  ,r    the    T'p.ris    ILxposition.      Chris- 
tiana.   1000. 

("(,11  titulr     umw  (  i.r  of  the  fullest   aiul  uirist   reliable  sources  of  information 

Pi.ttini'cr,    II       ■■||inm1,    1"i  II    and    l'"(jre-^t."      2   vols.      New    "S'ork,    1905. 
.\    bonk    <d   -j.urt    1:1    Xorwa}-. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  349 

Putnam,   J.    Bishop. — ''  Norwegian    Ramble."     New    York,    1904. 

Bright  descriptions  of  scenes  visited  among  fjelds,   fjords,   mountains   and 

glaciers.     The  descriptions  of  scenery  and  of  a  coast  trip  from  Nord  Fjord 

to  Bergen  are  especially  pleasing.     The  profusion  of  photographs  make  this 

also  a  volume  of  "  camera  notes.'' 
Rink,  Dr.  Henry. — "Danish  Greenland,  Its  People  and  Its  Products."     London, 
1877. 

The  best  available  account  of  Greenland,  with  descriptions  at  first  hand. 
Snorri   Sturlasson. — "  Norges  Kongesagaer."     2  vols.     Christiana,    1859. 
"  Heiniskringla:  or  tJie  Sagas  of  the  Norse  Kings."    4  vols.     1889. 

See  also  Samuel  Laing  and  G.  Storm. 
Spender,   A.    E. — "  Two   Winters   in    Norway."     London,    1902. 
Stanford,  C.  T. — '"  River  of  Norway."     New  York. 

Notes  and   reflections   of  an   angler  in   Norway. 
Starcke,  Olrih  and  Carlsen. — "  Le  Danemark."     Paris,  1900. 
Stephens,   Prof.  George. — "  Northern  Runic  Monuments." 

A   magnificent    work,   containing   hundreds    of   facsimiles,    illustrations,    etc., 

in   gold,   silver,   bronze   and   color. 

and  Cavallius,  H. — "  Old  Norse  Fairy  Tales,  gathered  from  the  Swedish 

Folk."     London,   1881. 

Forms  one  of  the  volumes  in  the  "  Illustrated  Library  of  the  Fairy  Tales 

of  All  Nations." 
Storm,  G. — "  Snorri   Sturlasson's   Historieskrivnink."     Copenhagen,    1878. 
Thomas,   W. — '"  Sweden   and   the   Swedes."     Chicago   and    New   York,    1898. 
Thorpe,    Benjamin. — '"  Northern    Mythology,    comprising   the    Principal    Popular 
Traditions    and    Superstitions    of    Scandinavia,    North    Germany    and    the 
Netherlands."     3   vols.     London,    1852. 

Much  of  this  material   was  gathered   from  original  sources  by  the  eminent 

author  and  scholar.     The  text  is  amplified  by  full  and  critical  notes. 
Vicary,  J.  Fulford. — "  Saga  Time."     London,   1887. 

Portrays  social  Iceland  in  the  ninth,  tenth,  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 
Vigfusson,   Gudbrand. — ''  Sturlunga   Saga."     2   vols.     Oxford,    1878. 

Beside  appendices,  tables,   indices   and  maps,  the  work  is  provided  with  an 

extended    general    account    of    "  Old    Northern    Literature,"    which    should 

prove   valuable. 
Wood,   C.   W. — ■'  Norwegian  Byways."     London,   1903. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Aagesen,  Svend :  compiles  a  history  of 
Denmark,  7 

Aasa,  daughter  of  Ingjald  Illraada: 
death   of.  36 

Aasund:  battle  of  (1520),  141,  148 

Abel,  King  of  Denmark :  invested  with 
Slesvig,   91,   266;    reign   of,   92 

Abo,  Treaty  of   (1743),  228 

Abruzzi,  Duke  of:  sends  out  polar  ex- 
pedition, 327 

Absalon  (Axel  Hvide),  Archbishop  of 
Lund :  sketch  of,  7,  81 ;  makes  a 
gift  of  the  site  for  Copenhagen,  69; 
death  of,  85 

Act   of   Union    (1815),   261 

Adalbert,  Archbishop  of  Bremen :  his 
relations   with    Svend    Estridsen,   69 

Adam  of  Bremen:  quoted,  31,  58;  his 
description   of    Scandinavia,   6r 

Adgar,    Archbishop   of   Lund :    installed, 

75 

Adlerkreuz,  Count  Karl  Johan :  his 
campaign  against  Russia,  251 ; 
forces  the  abdication  of  Gustavus, 
252 

Adlerspaare,  Count  George :  forces  the 
abdication   of   Gustavus,    251 

Adolf,  Count-Duke  of  Ilolstcin:  com- 
pelled  to    relinquish    his   duchy,   85 

Adolf  Vir,  Duke  of  Slesvig-llolstein: 
his  struggles  to  secure  Slesvig,  127, 
266;  refuses  the  Danish  crown,  132; 
death   of,    135 

Adolph  I,  Duke  of  Ilolstein-Gottorp : 
founds   the   G(Htorp    line,   267 

Adolph  b'redcrick,  King  of  Sweden : 
reign  of,  228;   death  of,  229 

Adrian  IV  (Nicholas  Breakspcar). 
Pope:    in    Scandinavia,    79,    loi 

Adrian  VL  Pope :  orders  ri  court  of  in- 
quisition   in    Sweden,    T55 

Aegard  :  defeat  of  the  Danish  rebels  at. 
130 


Aelfric,  Archbishop  of  York:  mission 
of,    3 J 

Aelgifa :   her   influence  in   Norway,  57 

Aella,  King  of  Northumbria :  his  re- 
lations   vith  the  Danes,  20 

Aethaling-Aelfred :    murder   of,    32 

Aethelstan,  King  of  England :  his  re- 
lations  with    Norway,   52 

Aftonhladct:    founded,   259 

Agnes  of  Brandenburg,  Queen  of  Den- 
mark,   regency    of,    no 

Ahmed  III,  Sultan  of  Turkey:  Ponia- 
towski   influences,   221 

Alberoni,  Giulio:  Gortz  makes  an  al- 
liance   with,    223 

Albert  of  Mecklenburg,  King  of 
Sweden:  chosen  king,  108;  joins 
alliance  against  Denmark,  116; 
claims  the  Danish  throne,  119;  de- 
feated  by    ]\Largaret,    121 

Albert  the  Younger,  Duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg: his  claim  on  the  Danish 
throne,   118 

Albert  of  Orlamunde,  Duke  of  North 
Albingia :  sketch  of,  85 ;  his  efforts 
to    rescue    Valdemar    Sejr,    88 

Alexander  IV,  Pope :  Erlandsen  ap- 
peals to,  96 

Alexander  I,  Emperor  of  Russia:  his 
relations  with  Sweden.  251,  254; 
his   treaty   with    England,   256 

Alexander  Wl,  King  of  Scotland:  de- 
feats   the    Norwegians,    100 

Alexander   I    I^and :   discovered,   333 

Alexius  (!)  Comnenus,  Emperor  of  the 
I'^ast:    visited    by    Sigurd,    97 

Alfred  the  Great,  King  of  England :  his 
translation  of  Orosius,  7,  299 ;  his 
treaty   with   Guthnun,    15 

Algeciras    Conference    (1905-1906),    290 

Algotsson,  Bengl :  b>ik  demands  exile 
of,    108 

Altin;in:    explorations    of,   315 

Altmark,    'I'ruce   of    (r()_'i)),    180 

Altranstadt,    Peace    of    (1706),   219 


333 


354 


INDEX 


Amaper:  sketch  of  the  peasants  of,   IQO 
Amundsen,     Ronald :      explorations     of, 

Anderson :   finds   relics   of  the   Franklin 

expedition,  310 
Andreae,    Jacob:    influence    of,    197 
Andreae,  Laurentius    (Lars  Anderson)  : 

made  chancellor,   155 
Andreas  Suneson,  Archbishop  of  Lund : 

at  the  battle  of  Wolmar,  86 
Andree,  Karl  Theodor :  attempts  to  find 

the   North    Pole,   ■^r] 
Ane,    King   of    Sweden :    the   legend    of, 

Angermannus.    Abraham:    his    relations 

with    Sigismund,    168 
Anglo-American        Arctic        Expedition 

_  (1906),  2>Z^ 
Anjou  :  explorations  of,  317 
Ankerstrom,   Johan   Jacob:    assassinates 

Gustavus,  249 
Anne  of   Denmark,   Queen   of  England : 

Christian   IV  visits,  199 
Anscarius,    Saint,    the    Apostle    of    the 

North  :   sketch  of,  26,  58 
Anund,   King  of   Sweden :   reign  of,  60 
Arcona :   assault  of    (1169),  82 
Arnfast,    Bishop    of   Aarhus:    sketch   of, 

96 
Arnulf,  Holy   Roman  Emperor:   defeats 

the  Northmen,  22, 
Asbjorn     Estridscn :     invades     England, 

Association  of  ^Merchant  Adventurers: 
founded,  301 

Aucrstadt:   battle  of    (1806),  251 

Aug-burg  Confes'^ion  of  J^'aith :  recog- 
nized  as   the   cult   of   Sweden,    iC)8 

August,  Elector  of  Saxon}-:  favors 
Jacob  Andreae,   197 

Augu'-tus  CH)  the  Strong,  King  of  Po- 
land :  in  the  Great  Xorthcrn  War, 
214,  221;  deposition  of,  217;  regains 
hi-    throne,    226 

Au.-^tcrlitz:    battle    of    CTSn5),    251 

Axel  Hviflc:  see  Absalon,  Archbishop 
of  Lund 


P. 


!';iard     on,    Skulc   Jarl    of    Xorway :    de- 
feat   '.f.    O'l 
I'.ack,    Sir    George;    cxjjlorations    of.    308 


Baftin,    William :    explorations    of,    304, 

305 
Balleny:   explorations   of,   3,34 
Bank   of    Norway:    established,   262 
Bank  of  Denmark:   established,  263 
Banner,    Johan :    in    the    Thirty    Years' 

War,   186 
Barcntz,    William :    explorations   of,   302 
Barrow,    Sir    John:    influences    Parlia- 
ment  to   offer    a   reward    for   polar 
discoveries,   306 
Bartenstein,   Treaty  of    (1807),  251 
Barthelsen,   Ivar :   persecution  of,   197 
Barwalde,  Treaty  of    (1631),   181 
Bauer,  Sten :   punishment  of,   166 
Beldenak,     Jens,     Bishop     of     Odense : 
provokes   the   blood   bath   of   Stock- 
holm,  149;   at  Brunnbak.  153 
Belgrade,   Peace   of    (1739),  227 
Bellingshausen :    explorations    of,   2)Z2) 
Benedict:   death   of,  'Jt, 
Bengtsson,  Jons,  Archbishop  of  Upsala: 

rebellion  of,   133 
Berangaria,     Queen     of     Denmark:     the 

jewels  of,  88;   sketch  of,  90 
Berg,      Christian      Paulsen:      leads      the 

liberals,  289 
Bergen:   captured  by   the   Jianscrs,    127 
Bering,   Vitus:    expIorati<Mis   of,   305 
Bernadotte,     Jean     P.;iptiste     Jr.les:     see 

Charles    XIV,    King   of    Sweden 
Ecrnhard,    Duke    of    Saxe-Weimar:    at 

the  l)attle   of   Liit/.cn,    184. 
Bcrnstorf,   Count  Andreas    Peter:   recall 

of,  254 
Bcrnstorf,     Count     Christian     Gimthcr: 
negotiates     the     Peace     of     Vieima, 
-75 
Bcrnstorf,   Count  Johan    llartwig    I'Tiist 
von :    dipl'jnia.cy    of,    207 ;    exile    of, 

2}[ 

l>cr>erkcrs :   legend   of  the,    18 
Berzeliu^,    Jcjlian    Jacob,    Baron:    sketch 

of,    J^ 
Bestu/liev,     Count     Alexis      Petrovitch : 

nlini^try  of,   228 
Birchlegs      (  P.irke-benerne )  :     the     party 

of  the,  ()8 
P>irgir,     King     of     Sweden:     reign     of, 

loO 
i'.irgcr    Hno;  .-t,    jarl    of    the    Swedes    and 

the   ( iotli  -  :    carerr   of,    103 
liiscoe :    explurations   of,    334 


INDEX 


355 


Bismarck,  Otto  Eduard  Leopold,  Prince 
von :  in  the  Slesvig-Holstein  con- 
troversy, 274 

Bjiirne:  voyage  of,  48 

Bjelke,  Count:  plots  to  assassinate  Gus- 
tavus,  249 

Bjelke,  Gunilla:  marriage  of,  165 

Bjelke,  Thiir:  punishment  of.  166 

Bjelkov:    explorations    of,    306 

Bjorling:   explorations  of,  324 

Bjorn  (I)  Jernside,  King  of  Sweden: 
the  legend  of,  20 

Bjorn  II,  King  of  Sweden:  his  appeal 
for  missionaries,  26;  mentioned  by 
Anscarius,  58 

Bjornson,  Bjornstjerne :  fights  for  Nor- 
way's  independence,   287 

Black  Death,  The:  in  Greenland,  48;  in 
Norway   and   Sweden,    108 

BlanKa,  Queen  of  Denmark :  death  of, 
117 

Blanka,  Queen  of  Sw^eden  and  Norway : 
sketch  of.   107 

Blood  Bath,  The,  150 

Bogbinder,  Hans  Metzenheim :  guar- 
dian of  Christian,  147 

Bonaparte.  Joseph :  placed  on  the  throne 
of  Spain,  257 

Bondar :   line  of  the.   102 

Boniface  VIII,  Pope:  his  relations  with 
Denmark,    112 

Borchgrcvink,    C.    E. :    explorations    of, 

334 

Bornhoved:    battle   of    (1227),   80 

Botilda,  Queen  of  Denmark :  in  the  first 
crusade,  75 

Boultiaux :  associated  with  the  Well- 
man   Expedition.   340 

Bourdelot:    favorite   of   Christina,   205 

Brahe,  Count:   death  of,  228 

Brahe,  Magnus :  favorite  of  Charles 
(XIV)    John,  259 

Brahe,  Count  Niels :  at  the  battle  of 
Liitzen,    184 

Brahe,  Tycho :   sketch  of,   19S 

Brainard,  David  Leggc :  explorations 
of.  319 

Brandt,    I'Jievold   vnn  :   career  of,   241 

Brask,  Hans,  Bishop  of  Linkoping: 
ignored  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  155;  at 
tlic   diet   of  Vesteraas,    157 

Bravalla:   battle  of,   18 


Breakspear,    Nicholas:    see    Adrian    IV, 

Pope 
Breitenfeld:     battles     of     (1631),     181; 

(1642),  187 
British    National    Antarctic    Expedition 

(1901),  334 
Brock,  Aeske:  in  the  Danish  revolt,  130 
Brodersen,  Al)raham :   execution  of,  124 
Bromsebro,  Peace  of   (1645),  iS?.  201 
Bronze   Age:    Scandinavia  in   the,  6 
Bruce,   William  Speirs :   explorations  of, 

336 
Brunkcbjcrg:   battle   of    (1471),    134 
Brunnbak:    battle   of    (1521),    153 
Bruno,    Guillaume    Marie    Anne:    occu- 
pies  Swedish   Pomcrania,  251 
Buchan,    David :    explorations    of,    306 
Buddcnbrock,     General:     execution     of, 

228 
Billow,     General :     in    the     Slesvig-Hol- 
stein  War,   271 
Burrough,     Stephen:     explorations     of, 

301 
Bush,   Elise :   explorations  of,  305 
Button,    Sir    Thomas :    explorations    of, 

304 
Bylot,   Robert:   explorations  of,  304 

Ci 

Cabot,   Sebastian :   his  expedition  to  the 

Arctic  regions,  300 
Cagni :    explorations   of,   Z-l 
Cahnar:   taken  by   Gustavus  Vasa,   154; 

siege  of   (1611),   176 
Cahnar,   Union  of,   122 
Cahnar   Recess  of    1483,   144 
Cahnar  War,  The   (1611),   174 
Calvinists :    in    Denmark,    197 
Canute   the    Great:    sec    Knud    (II)    the 

Great,     King     of     Scandinavia     and 

Britain 
Carlscn :      circumnavigates      the      Spitz- 

l)ergen  group,  315 
Carlstadt,      Andreas      Rudolph:      visits 

Copenhagen,    191 
Caroline    Matilda,    Queen    of    Denmark 

and  Norway:  sketch  of,  241 
Cathcart,    William    Shaw.    J^'irl    of:      at 

the    bombardment    of     Copcn!)agen, 

Catlicrine    (TI)    the    Great,    Empress    of 


'  P'or   references   not  found  under  (;,  look   under   K, 


356 


INDEX 


Russia:  renounces  her  claim  to 
Holstein,  240,  267 ;  her  relations 
with   Sweden,   248 

Chancellor,  Richard :  his  expedition  for 
the  exploration  of  the  Arctic 
regions,  300 

Charcot:  explorations  of,  336 

Charlemagne,  Holy  Roman  Emperor: 
founds  the  bishopric  of  Bremen,  25 

Charles  {III)  the  Fat,  Holy  Roman 
Emperor :  his  relations  with  the 
Northmen,  23 

Charles  (HI)  the  Simple,  King  of 
France:   liis  treaty  with  Rolf,   15 

Charles  IX,  King  of  Sweden:  invested 
with  Soedermannland  and  Verm- 
land.  160;  helps  to  depose  Erik.  163; 
favors  the  Reformers,  165 ;  regent 
of  Sweden,  168,  170;  reign  of,  171; 
death  of,    174 

Charles  (X)  Gustavus.  King  of  Swe- 
den: declared  heir  presumptive, 
204;   reign   of,   207;    death   of,   209 

Charles  XI,  King  of  Sweden  :  acccs'^ion 
of,  210;  prciclaimed  absolute  king, 
213,   243 

Charles  XII,  King  of  Sweden:  acres- 
sion  of,  213;  at  Bender,  221;  re- 
turns to  the  north,  222;  death  of, 
223 

Charles  XIII,  King  of  Sweden  and 
Nor\va\- :  regency  of,  249;  acces- 
sion of,  252;  proclaimed  joint  ruler 
of  Sweden  and   Norway,  261 

Charles  (XIV)  John  (Jean  Bai)ti-te 
Jules  Bernadotte ),  King  of  Sweden 
.'uid  Norway:  his  campaign  in  Jut- 
land, 251,  257;  chrisen  as  i)rincc 
royal  of  Sweden,  254;  reign  of, 
251S ;    growth    of    Sweden    under.   2^0 

Cliarles  XV,  King  of  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way :    reign    of,  278 

Cliarjis  h'rcfierick,  Duke  of  Ilolstein- 
Cottfirp:   minority  of,  236 

( 'barter  of    131'),    r  13 

( 'li('i;irdir,  Joachiin  Jai-f|uei  Trotti, 
Marr|ui^:    ucgotiation-.    of,    228 

(  hoi'-cul,  f-.ticnnc  b'ranrois,  Due  de  :  his 
poHcy   in    .S\\  rdLii,  jj'j 

Cbn^i.-ui  1.  King  (,i  Denmark:  acces- 
-iou  of,  i3j;  deat'.i  of.  [36;  his  re- 
latioii^    with     Sle,\  i-  I  iMl-tein,     2(>h 

CIiri>tian     If,     King    of     iJenniark     and 


Norway :  education  of,  147 ;  made 
viceroy  of  Norway,  148;  crowned 
King  of  Sweden,  149;  flees  from 
his  realm,  154;  reign  of,  189; 
deposition  and  imprisonment  of, 
192 

Christian  III,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway:  removes  Christian  II  to 
Kallundborg,  192;  reign  of,  194; 
death  of,   195 

Christian  IV,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway :  his  wars  against  Sweden, 
176,  187;  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
180.   201  ;    reign   of,    199 

Christian  V,  King  of  Demnark  and 
Norway :  reign  of,  233 ;  death  of, 
236 

Christian  VI,  King  of  Demnark  and 
Norway :  reign  of,  238 

Christian  VII,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway:  reign  of,  240;  death  of, 
257;  his  relations  to  Slesvig-flol- 
stein,  267 

Christian  VIII,  King  of  Denmark: 
reign  of,  265 

Christian  IX,  King  of  Denmark:  made 
heir  presumptive.  273;  I'ismarck 
recognizes  his  claim  on  Slesvig- 
Holstein,  274;    death  of,   291 

Christian,  Duke  of  Augustenburg :  in 
the  Slesvig-1  lolstein  controversy, 
2(j8,  272;   renounces   his  pretensions. 

Christian  Augustus,  Prince  of  August- 
enburg: proposed  as  Danish  king, 
252;   death  of.  253 

Christian  Frerlerick,  King  of  Norway: 
elected    king,    260 

Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden:  com- 
mended to  the  diet.  180;  reign  of, 
204;  abdication  of,  20() ;  reclaims 
the  throne,  207 

Christina,    l-^jrt :    erected    by  the    Swedes 

(^(>^^),  170 

C'bristianits- :    in    the    far    ue)rtb.    25 
Cliri-to])Iier     1.    King    e)f    Deuniaik:    in- 

\'e-ted     with     I.aaland     and     b'als'er, 

91  ;   reign   of,  02 
Christopher      11,      King     of      Denmark: 

I)awns        Danish       i)ro\  inco-,        107 ; 

sketch    of,     im;     arce>>iou    of,     113; 

deposition    and    death    of,    113 
Christopher    (III)    of    r.avaria.    King  of 


INDEX 


357 


Denmark :  chosen  king  of  Sweden 
and   Norway,   129;   death  of,    132 

Christopher,  Count  of  Oldenburg:  in 
the  Count's  Feud,  194 

Cistercian  Monks :  in  Denmark,  81 ;  in- 
vited to  Sweden,  loi 

Clair-sur-Epte,    Treaty    of     (911    A.  d.), 

15 

Clary,   Desiree :   sketch  of,  260 

Clement  VII,  Pope:  his  relations  with 
Frederick   I   of  Denmark,   193 

Cluna :    explorations    of,    334 

Coalitions  against  France:  first  (1792- 
1797),  249;  third  (1805),  251; 
fourth    (1806-1807),   251 

Colardeau,  Paul :  member  of  the  Well- 
man  Expedition,  341 

Concordat  of  Worms   (1122),  74 

Conrad  II,  Holy  Roman  Emperor: 
Knud  at  the  coronation  of,  60 

Conrad,     IMaster:     tutor     of     Christian, 

147 
Constitutio    V^aldemariana,  266 
Constitution  of   1866,  The,  278 
Continental     System :     Gustavus     defies, 

251  _ 

Conwaj-,    Sir   William   IMartin :    explora- 
tions of,  327 
Cook,    James :    his    explorations    in    the 

Arctic,  306;   his   explorations  in  the 

Antarctic,  332 
Copenhagen      (Axelborg)  :      foundation 

of,   69;    defended   by    Philippa,    127; 

siege  of    (1658),   209;   bombardment 

of    (1700),    215;    battle    of    (1801), 

255;    taken   by   the    English    (1807), 

256 
Copenhagen,    Treaties    of:     (1660),    210, 

231;    (1767).  267  _ 
Copenhagen,     University     of:     founded, 

136 
Coppermine   River :    discovered,   307 
Count's   Feud,   The,    194 
Crimean   War:    Scandinavia   in   the,   2^14, 

286 
Criminil,     Count     Heiiirick     Revcntlow: 

made    foreign    secretary   of    Slcsvi;^- 

llolstein,   268 
Criminil,      Count      Joseph      Revcntlow : 

made     chancellor     of     SIes\'ig-nr)l- 

steiTi,   268 
Croy,    Charles    Eugene,    Due   de :    at    the 

battle  of  Narva,  216 


Croziers    (Baglerne)  :   the   partv   of  the, 

98 
Crusades,  The :  first,  75 :   fourtli,  85 
Crusentolpe,  ]\Iagnus  Jacob :  attacks  the 

Swedish    government,    259 


D 


Daeia,  Martinus  de :  chancellor  of  Den- 
mark,  no 

Dagmar,  Queen  of  Denmark :  sketch  of, 
90 

Dahlberg,    Erik:    defends    Riga,    215 

Dahlmann,  Friedrich  Christoph :  his 
historical    investigations,   267 

Danish   I-lxpeditiou    (1906),   339 

Danish    Revolution,    The    (1660),    232 

Dan  (I)  Mykillati,  King  of  Denmark: 
the  legend  of,   17 

Dan  (II)  Mykillati,  King  of  Denmark: 
the  legend  of,   ij 

Dannebrog:  the  origin  of  the,  86 

Dannebrog,  Order  of  the.  234 

Daimcskjold-Samsoc,    Count:    exile    of, 

241  _ 

Dannevirke :  description  of  the,  30  note 

Dantxig:  taken  by  the  Swedes  (1703), 
216 

David,  C.   N. :  arrest  of,  263 

Davis,   John :    explorations    of,    301 

Dcase :    explorations   of.   309 

Denmark:  legendary  history  of,  16; 
consolidation  of,  20,  22 ;  Adam  of 
Bremen's  description  of.  61  ;  under 
the  Estridsens,  O7 ;  under  the  Val- 
dcmars,  80;  at  the  close  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  [41  ;  Svi-cden  dis- 
solves union  with,  154:  benevolent 
despotism  in,  230;  in  the  age  of 
political  revolution,  247;  constitu- 
tional government   in.  2S8 

Deshnev,    .SiuTm :    e\4iloralions    of,    305 

Deuntzer,    rrofe>sor:    mini;.tr_\'    of,    290 

1  )iruil  :   writes  of  Thnlc,  jgS 

Ditmarshers  (Marsluncn )  :  revolt  of 
the,  138;  lu'ederick  II  at  war  with 
the,    rof) 

Dmitri,  The  False:  Sweden  aids  Vas- 
sili    Shuiski   against.    173 

Dorothea  of  Br;in(U'iibur!.j,  Queen  of 
IX'umark:  crowiud  O-iren  of  Swe- 
den,    130;     marries     Christian,     J  32 


358  INDEX 

Dyhbcl:  battles  of   (1849),  271;    (1864),  Erik    (II)    Emun.    King    of    Denmark: 

^74  avenges    the    death    of    his    brother, 

Dyvcke :    mistress    of    Christian    II    of  76;    reign   of,  80 

Denmark,    191  Erik    (III)    Lamb,    King   of   Denmark: 

reign   of,  80 
Erik     (IV)     Ploopcng.    King    of    Den- 

E  mark :    reign    of,    91 ;    his    relations 

with   Slesvig,   266 

East  India  Company,  Dtitch :   sends   out  Erik    (V)    Clipping,   King  of  Denmark: 

Henry   Hudson,  303  accession  of,  96;  death  of.   no 

Ebbeson,    Niels:    frees    Deimiark.    113  Erik   (VI)    Alenved,  King  of  Dcmnark : 

ICbbo,   Archbishop   of   Rheims:   the  mis-  pawns    Danish    provinces,    107;    ac- 

sion   of,    25  cession   of,    no 

Eddas,    The:    main    treatment,    7  Erik     (VII)     of     Pomerania,    King    of 

Edges :   exploration  of,  304  Denmark,     Norway     and     Sweden : 

F2dmund  Gamlc.  King  of  Sweden:  reign  chosen    to    succeed    [Margaret,    120; 

of,  60;   death  of.   100  coronation    of,    122;    reign    of,    126; 

Edward    the    Confessor.    King    of    Eng-  deposition   of,    129 

land:   accession,   of.  3^  Erik    (I)    BlodiJxe,    King    of    Norway: 

Edward  VII,  King  of  fircat  I'-ritain  and  career  of.  52 

Ireland  and  limperor  of  India:   an-  Erik    (II)     Praesthader,    King    of    Nor- 

cestors  of,  70  way:  reign  of.  100;  patronizes  Dan- 

Egede,    Hans:    his   labors    in   Greenland,  ish   rebels,    no 

48,   237  Erik  Edmundson,  King  of  Sweden:  the 

]'"ginus,   ]!i>hop  of  Dalby :   sketch  of,  62  legend   of,   59 

E.i^men :  battle  of   (]62]),   179  Erik    Sejrsael,    King    of    Sweden:    the 

l-^-jnar:    driven    into   exile.   42  legend  of,  58 

Ejsten,  King  of  Dcmnark:  chosen  king,  Erik     (I    or     IX)     Jedvardsson.     Saint, 

97  King  of   Sweden  :   reign   of,    loi 

Elephant,   Order  of  the,  234  Erik     (H    or    X)     Knufisson,     King    of 

Elizabeth,     Qu"en     of     Ijigland:      Erik  Sweden:     defeats     Valdemar     Sejr, 

XIV   solicits   the   hand   of.    i6r  85;   marriage  of,   103 

liiizabeth,      Princess      oi      1  lolstein-Got-  Erik     (111     or     Xl)     Laespe,     King    of 

lorj) :   sketch   of,    T16  Sweden:   death  of.   102,    103 

I'^lizabeth,   Cf)unte>.-^  of  Hol.-icin:   makes  Erik    (IV    or    XII),    King    of    Sweden, 

war   ujion    iJanes.    125  co-rulcr    with    ]\lagnus    II.:    career 

I'.lizabeth     I'etrovna.     I'"nipre>s    of    Rus-  of.    108 

sia:  acccs'-ion  of.  228  Eric     (XIII)     of    Pomerania,    King    of 

Ennna,     Queen     of     bjigland:     influence  Sweden:   see   I'>ik    (VII)    of   Pome- 

of,  32  rania.    King    of    Denmark,    Norway 

Iviulcrby    Land:    discovered,    334  and    Sweden 

l-Jig"Ibreclit--on,        I'nijjelbrerlu :       leads  Erik   XIV,    King   of   Sweden:    accession 

Swcdi-b    revolt,    127  of,     161;    deposition    of,    163;    death 

I".n;.;ril)re{-lii^';oii,     Olaf.     Archbi-hop     of  of.    164 

Dronthcim:   death  of,   196  b'rik.  Duke  of  Slesvig:  conhrmed  in  his 

T''.nkoiiing :    battle   of    ('r3ri5),    lo!-'  duchy,   93 

i'.riik-fn.     L.     Myluis:     connnanrls     the  I'.rik,    son    of   I'irgcr   Jarl :    his   quarrels 

i)aiii-h    Lxjiedition.    339  with   V.aldemar.    104 

i'.ra  k- -(in.      Jos'-en       (Jens      !".ricli<en)  :  l'"rik.    son    of    Christopher    II    of    Den- 

<Ti:c'iic-    of.    [28  mark:   sketch   of.    ut,.   n4 

l■.ni^     'I)     i',j(or,d,     KiuL;    nf    Denmark:  I'.rik.      son     of      M.aginis      Ladulaas     of 

mailr    jarj    nf    Sjaclland,    /2\    reign  .Sweden:      his      (juarrels      with      lii-^ 

of,   74:   drath   of.  73  brotlier.    fo6 


INDEX 


359 


Erik  Raudi :  settles  Greenland,  47 
Eriksson,  Jacob :   marks  the  spot  where 

Gustavus  Adolphus   fell.   185 
Erlandsen,    Jacob,    Archbishop    of    Roe- 

skilde :    his    struggle    with    Christo- 
pher, 95 
Eskil,   Bishop   of   Roeskilde :    sketch   of, 

80 
Estridsens :  inauguration  of  the  line  of, 

23 ;  Denmark  under  the,  67 
Estrup,    Jacob    Bronnum:    ministry    of, 

289 
Ethelred     (II)     the    Unready,    King    of 

England :    his   relations   with    Svend 

Tveskaeg,   31 
Eugene   of    Savoy,    Prince :    defeats   the 

French  at  Turin.  218 
Euphemia,     sister     of     Magnus     Smek: 

mother   of    Albert   of    !\Iecklenburg, 

108 
Ewald,  Johan:  sketch  of,  202  note 


February  Revolution  (1848),  269 
Fehrbellin:  battle  of  (1675),  211 
Feodor    (I)    Ivanovitch,    Tsar    of    Tvlus- 

covy :      Sweden     refuses     to     make 

peace  with,   167 
Fersen,  Count  Axel :  death  of,  253 
Fiala,    Anthony :    explorations   of,    328 
Finland:  recognizes  Gustavus  Vasa,   154. 
Finns :    the   progenitors   of   the    modern, 

6;    driven    out    by    the    Goths,    35; 

conversion  of  the,   103 
Fischer,  Olfert:  at  the  battle  of  Copen- 
hagen, 256 
Fleming,   Klas;   aids  reform  in   Sweden, 

212 
I'leming,     Klas     Eriksson :     re.-i.^ts     the 

surrender  of   Kcxhohn,    1(^)8 
I'leury,  Andre  llercule  de :   ministry  of, 

226 
Floki   Rafn:   visits    Iceland,  44 
I'Vjdevig:  battle  of   (1134),  76 
T'ogelberg,  Bengt  I-'rland  :  sketch  of.  264 
Folkungar:   rise  of.    103;  era  of,   143 
Fort   Conger:   cstal)Hshcd,   319 
I'otherby:    explorations   of,   304 
Tow    J,nke:    explorations    of.    305 
J.m-;m  ;ik('I.     iJr. :     attcm])ts     to     find     the 

Xorth    Poll-,   327 


Francis    I,    King   of    France:    Gustavus 
Vasa   forms    an    alliance   with,    160 
Franklin,    Sir    John :    explorations,    306, 

307,  309 
Franstadt :    battle   of    (1706),   217 
r>anz   Josef   Land :    discovered,   318 
Fredericia:    battle    of    (1849),    271 
Frederick   (I)    Barbarossa,  Holy  Roman 
Emperor :    his    relations    with    Den- 
mark, 80,  83 
Frederick    II,    Holy    Roman    Emperor: 
seeks    an    alliance    with    Denmark, 

Frederick  I,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway:  made  Duke  of  Slesvig- 
Holstcin,  137;  Christian  discovers 
plot  in  favor  of,  191;  reign  of,  192; 
death  of,  194 

Frederick  II,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway :  in  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
162;    reign  of,   196 

Frederick  III.  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway:  joins  alliance  against 
Sweden,   207;    reign   of,   230.   243 

Frederick  IV,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway :  aids  Hans  Egede.  48 ;  in 
the  Great  Northern  War.  214.  221; 
reign  of,  236;  death  of,  23S;  his  re- 
lations   with     Slesvig^Holstein.    267 

Frederick  V,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway:   reign   of.   239 

Frederick  VI,  King  of  Denmark  au'l 
Norway:  joint  ruler  with  his  fatlicr. 
243;  reign  of.  257;  establishes  con- 
sultative chambers,  263 ;  death  of, 
-64 

Frederick  VII,  King  of  Denmark : 
0,-<car's  relations  with,  264;  in  the 
Slesvig-Holstcin  controversy,  2C)9 ; 
(lo;tth    of.    273 

Frederick  VIII,  King  of  Deimiark  :  ac- 
cess i(jn  of,  291 

Fretlcrick  (II)  the  Great,  King  of 
Prussia:  his  relations  with  Sweden, 
228 

l'"rc(lerick  I,  King  of  Sweden  :  reign  of, 
225 

Frederick,  Prince  of  Denmark:  plots 
against   Slrucnsce,  242 

I'redrriik  IV,  Duke  of  I  lolstciu-Got- 
lorp:    lii<    war    witii    I  )(niiiark,    236 

I'redc'rirk'.  I'rince  of  NTtr:  in  the  Sles- 
vig-1  lol:4eiii    controversy,    268 


360 


INDEX 


Frederick  V.  Elector  Palatine :  Charles 
IX's  relations  with,    172 

Frederick  the  Wise,  Elector  of  Saxony: 
sends   a   preacher   to   Denmark.    190 

Frederick  III,  Duke  of  Slesvig-liol- 
stein :  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
201 ;  Denmark  pays  indemnity  to, 
208;  his  sovereignty  recognized,  267 

Frederick  VIII,  Duke  of  Slcsvig-Iiol- 
stein :  assumes  his  title,  274 

Frederick  William  I,  King  of  Prussia : 
invests   Stralsund.  222 

Frederick  William  IV.  King  of  Prus- 
sia: in  the  Slesvig-Holstcin  contro- 
versy.  269 

Frederickstad :    siege    of    (1850).    272 

Frederika  of  Baden,  Queen  of  Sweden : 
marriage    of,    250 

Frederikshald :    siege    of    (1718).    22;^, 

I'rcderiksten :    siege    of    (1716).    223 

French  Revolution,  The :  outbreak  of, 
249 

Frcy-Yngvc,  King  of  Sweden:  the 
legend  of,  35 

Friedlaiul:   battle   of    (1807).   251 

Frisii  :  ancestors  of  the  Ditmarshcrs, 
138 

Frol)ishcr,  Sir  IMartin :  searches  for  a 
n'lrl'iwc-t   passage,   301 

Erode  (I)  the  Peaceful.  King  of  Den- 
mark:   the   legend   of.    17 

Fury  and   Ilccla   Strait:   discovered,  307 


nabcd.  Chri-toplier :  at  the  diet  of 
Copenhagen.   232 

Gadc.  Hemming,  Di^ho])  of  Linknping : 
his  otimatc  of  the  Danes,  },V);  sent 
a-    a    ho.^tage    to    Denmark,    ill 

Calt,    Peder:    in    the    War    of    iC)  (3-1645, 

202    lllllc 

Ciiiibier.       Jrunt -.       iJaron :       bombards 

C'ipciili;igen.   256 
fiardar  :    vi-  it-    Icelanrl,  44 
(/ard(rikc:    -ee    Ku^>ia 
Cardie,    Count    Mrmnus    de    la:    a    mcm- 

b(  r   III   t!u-   crnuifil    of   regenc\-,   210: 

iiiiiHuii'i  duiicut    of,    Jij 
( i,-!;  dif,      1 ''  ,iitc     dc     la  :      hi  .     cani]>ai'-;us 

;ig.aiu  t    l\u-ia.    K17,    173 
(iastein,    Conveuti'm    of     (18(^5),    275 


Gecr.  Baron  Louis  Gerhard  de :  minis- 
try of,  278 

Geijer.  Erik  Gustaf:  quoted  on  the  Act 
of    Union,    123;   sketch   of,   264 

Gellis,   Thord :   reforms   of,   290 

George  1,  King  of  Great  Britain:  as- 
sumes possession  of  Bremen  and 
Vcrdcn,   222 

George,  Duke  of  Liineburg:  fails  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,   183 

Gerdt.    Coimt :    his    claims    on    Holstein, 

Gerhard  III  (Black  Geert).  Count  of 
Holstein:   in   Denmark.   113 

Gerhard  VI,  Duke  of  Slesvig-Holstein  : 
death  of,  125 ;  in  the  Slesvig-Hol- 
stein   controversy.   266 

Gerhard  VII.  Count  of  Holstein:  pro- 
tests his  loyalty,   126 

Gerlache :    explorations    of.    334 

German  Confederation :  Frederick  VI 
a  member  of  the.  258 

German  Knights,  Order  of  the:  Otto 
enler<.   114 

Gibbons:    explorations   of.   304 

Gjo,  Henrik:  supports  Christian  II  of 
Denmark,    192 

Godarcl,  L'niis:  builds  the  Wellman  air- 
ship, 340 

Godthaab:    foundation    of,   2t,7 

(jodwine,  b'arl  of  the  We-t  Saxons: 
bribes    1  larthaknud,  ,->,,'^ 

Garm  den  (lamle,  King  of  Denmark : 
career  of,  20;  his  aversion  to  Chri,>- 
tianity,    28 

Gfjrtz,  (ieorg  Heinrich  vmu  :  policy  of, 
22Ti[  execution  of,  225:  in  tlie  Hol- 
>tein-t;ottMr])   difticulty.    2j,U 

G('iteborg:  fdundation  of,  172;  relief  of 
(  [78S).   248 

Goth-;  their  conquest  of  Scandinavia, 
6;    -settlement   of,  34 

(jothus,  Arclibishop  of  .Sweden:  acces- 
sion of,   1O5 

Clottorp:    taken    by    the    Danes,    214 

Gonpil  ;  a--oriated  with  the  Welhn.in 
Expedition,    340 

Grand,  Johan,  Arclibi>hop  of  Lund:  ac- 
count   of.    III 

(irr,!\,  Ailolpbus  Wa-dn'ngtoii :  e-.t:d)- 
lislies  llie  Cnited  State-  jxilar  st.i- 
tion.   311,) 

(Greenland:    settlement    of,    47;    brought 


INDEX 


361 


under  the   control   of   Norway,   99; 

reopened  to  the  world,  237;   visited 

by   Davis,   301 
Gregory    IV,    Pope :    makes    Anscarius 

Papal  legate,  2^ 
Gregory     (VII)      Saint     (Hildebrand), 

Pope :     his     relations     with     Svend 

Estridsen,  68,  70 
Gregory  XIII,  Pope :  his  relations  with 

Sweden,  165 
Griffenfeld,    Peder   Schumacher,   Count: 

career  of,   232 
Griffith,     DeHaven :     commands     Arctic 

expedition,  312 
Grimkel,    Bishop :    recalled    to    Norway, 

57 
Grinnell,   Henry :    sends   out   Arctic   ex- 
peditions, 312 
Grinnell    Land:    discovered,    312 
Gudleif:   account  of  his  voyage  to  Vin- 

land,  49 
Gudrod,  Prince :  mission  of,  42 
Guilds :   in   Denmark,  ']'] 
Guldberg,    Count   Ove    Heogh :    ministry 

of,   243 ;    dismissal   of,   254 
Guld-IIarald :  sketch  of,  29 
Gule  Law,  The:  promulgated  by  Hakon, 

52 
Gunhild,   Queen  of  Norway :   sketch  of, 

52,  54 
Gunner,     Bishop :     revises     Valdemar's 

code  of  law,  89 
Gustaf,  son  of  Erik  XIV :  sketch  of,  164 
Gustaf  Adolf:  see  Gustavus   (II)  Adol- 

phus.  King  of  Sweden 
Gustavus    (I)    Vasa,    King  of    Sweden: 

sent  as  a  hostage  to  Denmark,  141 ; 

career    of,    150;    accession    of,    151; 

proclaimed  king  by  the  diet,  154;  at 

the  diet  of  Vesteraas,   156;   reforms 

of,   159;  death  of,  160 
Gustavus      (II)      Adol[)lms,      King      of 

Sweden :    early    life    of,    175 ;    reign 

of,   176;  death  of,   184 
Gustavus    HI,    King    of    Sweden:    reign 

of,   247 ;    assassination   of,   249 
Gustavus      (IV)      Adolphus,     King     of 

Sweden :    reign    of,    250 ;    forced    to 

abdicate.  252 
Guthrum,     King    of    East    y\nglia:    his 

treaty   with   Alfred   the  Great,    15 
Guttonn,    King    of    Norway :    reign    of, 

98 


Gyda :  sketch  of,  41 

Gyldensjerne,   Knud :  takes  Christian   II 

prisoner,   192 
Gylfe,    King   of   the   Goths :    the    legend 

of,  35 
Gyllenstjerna,    Johan :     aids    reform    in 

Sweden,  212 


H 


Ilafurstfjord:  battle  of  (872  a.d.),  41 
Hagerup,   G.   F. :   ministry  of,   285 
Hakon  (I)  the  Good,  King  of  Norway: 

career  of,  52 
Hakon     (II)     Jarl,    King    of    Norway: 

secures  the  throne,  29;  reign  of,  54 
Hakon  III,  King  of  Norwav:  reign  of, 

98 
Hakon   IV,  King  of  N^orway :   reign   of, 

98 
Hakon   V,   King   of   Norway:    reign   of, 

100 
Hakrm   VI,   King   of    Norway:    Magnus 

resigns  the  throne  to,  100;  marriage 

of,   108,  117 
Hakon  VII,  King  of  N^orwav:  accession 

of,  288 
?Ialfdan,   Prince :   mission  of,  42 
Halfdan  Svarte,  King  of  Norway :  reign 

of,  41 
Halkett,    General :    in    the    Slesvig-Hol- 

stein    \\'ar,   270 
Hall,    Charles :    explorations   of.   312 
Hamburg,    Peace   of    (1762),  228 
Hans,   King  of  Denmark   and   Norway: 

reign    of,    137;    proclaimed    king    of 

Sweden,    138;    resigns    the    Swedi.-;h 

crown,    140 
Hans,  son  of  Frederick  I  of  Denmark: 

sketch    of.    194 
Hanse     League:     acknowledges     Valde- 

mar    (11)    Sejr,   85;    Albert  bestows 

privileges   on  the,   109;   at  war  with 

Vakleniar     IV     of     Demuark,     115; 

Christian     gives      a     monopoly      of 

trade  to,  136;  presses  claims  against 

Gustavus   Vasa,    154 
Hanse   Towns:    accorded   autonomy,  89 
llarald     (1)     Hildetand,    King    of    Den- 
mark:   at    the   battle   of    Bravalki,    19 
Harald     (H)     lilaataud.    King    of    Den- 


362 


INDEX 


mark:   accession   of,   28;   his   enmity 
to  Ilakoii,   ^,3  ;  pavs  tribute  to  Otto, 

JIarald  III,  King  of  Denmark:  reign 
of,  31 

Ilarald  (IV)  Ilejn,  King  of  Denmark: 
reign  of,  71 

Ilarald  (I)  Haarfager,  King  of  Nor- 
way :  Scandinavian  expansion  un- 
der, 34;  collects  sagas,  37;  reign  of. 

41,  51 
Harald   (II)   Graafell,  King  of  Norway: 

reign   of,   54;    death   of,   29 
Harald   (III)   Haardrade,  King  of  Nor- 
way:    accession     of,     ;is:     ravages 

Denmark,  67 ;  death  of,  68 
Harald    (IV)    Gille,    King   of    Norway: 

defeats      IVIagnus      Sigurdson,      80; 

career  of,  98 
llarrild     Klak,     King     of     Slesvig:     the 

conversion  of,  25 
Harald    Kesia :    death   of.   80 
Hardegon        (Hardeknud),        King       of 

Leire :  career  of,  21 
Harold     (I)     Harefo(Jt,    King    of    Eng- 
land :   reign   of,  32 
Harrison    I-'.xpedition,    The    (1905),    338 
Ilarthaknud,     King     of     Denmark     and 

England :   reign  of,  32 
Hartsline :  rescues  the   Kane  expedition, 

312 
Hats   (Hattar):  party  of,  226 
Hatzft^ld,     .Alarshal:     at     the     battle     of 

Jaukowitz,    187 
Haye>,    I>aac     I-rael:    explorations    of, 

312 
Hearne,    Samuel:    explorations    of,   307 
Hebrides,      The:      Magnus      Lagabaeter 

scll-^,    100 
Hedt-mann,     General:     in     the     Slesvig- 

1  lol-t'-in   War,  270 
i  fedvig     Sofia,      Duchess     of     Holstein- 

GcAlori):    her    claim    on    tlie    Danish 

thrdiir,    -125;     regency    of,    23^) 
iicdv.'ig.    (Jiuin    of    I  )i-nni;irk :    uiarririge 

of,     11) 
licdwig     Idtauori;    of    Hohtein-f  iottorp. 

Or,!  (11  of  .Sweden:  a  member  of  the 

co'uir;]   I ,\    rciicncy,   210 
I  leimskrhrjjii.      Tlu::      account      (jf,     8; 

'I'lot'd,    ,',5.    57 
I  Icinriik- -on  :    poi-tjiis     i'.rik,     164 
Hellichr.i.-.    (  .-ipKiiu  :    n.\oil    of,    247 


Ilelsingfors :   Swedes  capitulate  at.  228 
Hemmingen,    Niels:   persecution   of,    197 
llemmingstedt :   battle   of    (1500),    139 
llenrik,     Duke     of     Osnabriick :     makes 

war  on  Elizabeth  of  Holstein,  125 
Henrik,    Archbishop    of    Upsala:    career 

(T,  102 
Henry    (I)     the    Fowler,    Holy    Roman 
limperor :    his   relations   with   Gorm 
den  Gamle,  28 
Henry  IV,  Holy  Roman  Emperor:  seeks 
assistance    of    Svend    Estridsen,    70 
Henry   IV.   King  of  France:   assassina- 
tion of,   174 
Henry,  King  of  the  Obotrites  :  his  quar- 
rel with  Denmark,  76 
Henry,    the    Iron    Count    of    Holstein: 

avenges   his   father's    death,    114 
Henry,   Bishop  of  Lund:   sketch  of,  62 
Henry,    Count-Duke    of    Scluverin :    the 

treachery  of,  86 
]  lenry,   Duke   of   .Slesvig:   death   of,    118 
HeruK-lin:     Charles     XII     discloses     his 

plans  to,  217 
Hersey,     Henry     B. :     member     of     the 

W'ellman   h^xpedition,  341 
Hcrvieu,   Gaston:   member  of  the  Well- 
man  h'xpedition,  341 
Hierta:    founds   the   Aftonhladct,  259 
Hildehraud:    see   Gregory   VH 
Hinze,    George:    guardian    of    Christian, 

147 
Hjartvar:    the    treachery   of,    18 
Hobson:    searches    for   Franklin.   311 
Hoemskerck,     Jacob:     explorations     of, 

302 
Holberg,    Ludwig    von:     Bernstorf    co- 
operates with.  240 
Hoik,    Courit :    a    favorite    of    Christian 

VH  of  Denm.ark.  241 
Holm.     Jan      (Leijonkrona)  :     ennobled, 

-'<'5 
1 1  ()h)v^aii:^:    description    of.    44    nutc 
\  loliu^tadt.    Diet    of    (  1435),    128 
Holovin  :   liattle  of    (1708).  210 
Holstein    War:    h'.rik    in    the.    126 
HoiK^rius     II.     Pope:    his    fjuarrel     with 

Denm.ark.    78 
Horn,   ("ount ;    plots  to   assassinate   CjUS- 

taMir-,   240 
Horn,     Count     Arvid     l>ernar(l :     -urren- 

d(Ts      Warsaw,     217;     ministry     of, 

226;   death  of,   228 


INDEX 


363 


Horn,  Evert:  his  campaign  against 
Russia,  173 

Horn,  Gustaf:  at  the  battle  of  Nord- 
lingen,  186;  his  campaign  against 
Denmark,  187 

Horn,  Henrik:  his  campaign  against 
Russia,   167 

Horn,  Klas :  his  campaign  against  Rus- 
sia, 167 

Hother:    slain  by   Stoerkodder,   18 

Hudson,    Henry :    explorations    of,    303 

Hudson     Bay     Company :     incorporated, 

305 

Huguenots :  Denmark  refuses  an  asy- 
lum to  the,  235 

Hvitsek,  King  of  Jutland :  the  legend 
of,  20 

Hyperboreans  (Outside  Northwind- 
ers)  :  the  fable  of  the,  3 


Iceland :     the     settlement    of,    44,    299 ; 
brought  under  the  control   of  Nor- 
way,   99;     receives     a     constitution, 
291  ;    visited    by    the    Irish    Culdecs, 
298 
Immeroad :  battle  of   (1421),    126 
Independence  Bay :  discovered,  296,  320 
India :    Denmark   sends   missionaries   to, 

237 

Inge  Baardsen,  King  of  Norway :  reign 
of,  98 

Ingeborg,  Queen  of  Denmark :  the 
dowry  of,  100 

Ingeborg,  Queen  of  France :  Philip's  re- 
pudiation of,  84 

Ingeborg,  Countess  of  iMecklenburg: 
marriage  of,  118 

Ingegerd,  daughter  of  Olaf  Skat- 
konung:   marriage   of,   59 

Ingjald  Illraada,  King  of  Sweden:  the 
legend  of,  36 

Ingolf:    settles   in   Iceland,  44 

Innocent  III,  Pope:  intervenes  between 
Knud   and   Philip,   84 

International  Geographical  Congress : 
(1879),  318    _ 

Investiture   Conflict,   The,  74 

Isabella,  Queen  of  Denmark:  intro- 
duces   Flemish    gardener-;,    igo 

Isebrand,  Wolf:  leads  the  Ditmarshtrs, 
139 


Isted:  battle  of   (1850),  272 

Ivan  IV,  Tsar  of  JMuscovy;  his  rela- 
tions   with    Sweden,    167 

Ivar,  King  of  Waterford :  establishes 
his  kingdom,  43 

Ivar  Blaa :  secures  the  election  of  Val- 
demar,  103 

Ivar  Benlos,  King  of  Northumbria:  the 
legend   of,  20 

Ivar  Vidfadme,  King  of  Denmark:  the 
legend  of,  38 


Jackman :  explorations  of,  301 

Jackson-Harmsworth    Expedition,    326 

James  I,  King  of  England :  relations 
of  Charles  IX  with,  174;  Christian 
IV  at   the  court  of,   199 

James :   explorations  of,  305 

Jaroslav  the  Great,  Grand  Prince  of 
Russia:  befriends  Saint  Olaf,  57; 
marriage  of,  59 

Jaukowitz:   battle   of    (1645),    1S7 

Jena:   battle  of    (1806),   251 

Jernskoeg  (Ironbeard)  :  champions  the 
old  belief,  55 

Joachim,  Elector  of  Brandenburg: 
sends   tutor   for   Christian,   147 

Johan  (i)  Sverkersson,  King  of  Swe- 
den :  death  of.  103 

Johan  II,  King  of  Sweden:  see  Hans, 
King  of  Denmark 

Johan  III,  King  of  Sweden:  invested 
with  Finland,  160;  deposes  his 
brother,  163;  reign  of,  164;  death 
of,   168 

Johan,  Duke  of  Fast  Gothland :  refuses 
the  Swedish  crown,  171 ;  regent  oi 
Sweden,  176 

Johan,  Duke  of  1  lolstein-Gottorp :  a 
nK'ml)cr  of  tlie  council  of  regency, 
210 

Johan^on,  Iljalmar:  accompanies  Nan- 
sen,  326 

John  (11)  Casimir,  King  of  Poland: 
claims  tlie  tlirone  of  Sweden,  207; 
abandon>    his    preten-;i(jiis,    210 

John  Casimir,  Coiuit  Palatine  of  Zwei- 
briickcn :  dircctor-in-chicf  in  Swe- 
den,  181 


364 


INDEX 


Johnsen,   Nils:   explorations   of,   315 
Jomsborg,     Brotherliood     of:     founding 
of,    30;    defeated    by    Erik    Sejrsael, 

Jonsen,  Rane :  execution  of,   no 
Jonsson,  Bo :  his  rule  in  Sweden,  109 
Junsson,    Ture :    at    the    diet    of    Ves- 

teraas,   158 
Jordebog:    description    of   the,   8g 
Jornandes :     his    account    of    the    Visi- 
goths,  7 
Joseph :  explorations  of.  304 
Judith,    Holy    Roman    Empress :    stands 

sponsor   for   Harald    Klak.   25 
Juel,    Esger,    Archbisliop   of    Lund:    ap- 
pointment of,   112 
Juel,    Niels:    defeats   the    Swedes,    212 
Juliana   Alaria   of   Bnniswick,   Queen   of 
Denmark    and    Norway :    sketch    of, 
239.  241 
Jutta:  Valdemar  marries,  104 


Kalstennius:   explorations   of,   324 

Kane,  Elisha  Kent:  explorations  of, 
312 

Kardis,   Peace  of   (1661),  211 

Karl  IX,  King  of  Sweden:  see  Charles 
IX 

Karl  Gustaf  of  the  Palatinate:  see 
Charles    (X)    Gustavus 

Karl  Johan :    see   Charles  X 

Karl  Kniuls;^on,  King  of  Sweden:  joins 
the  popular  cause,  128;  proclaimed 
king,  132;  driven  from  Sweden, 
133;    recall    of,    134 

Karl  Philip,  Prince  of  Sweden:  de- 
clared Rus>ian  heir-presumptive, 
173;  Gustavus  Ad(jlphus  champinns 
the  claim  of,  177 

Karlstad:    foiuidation    of,    172 

Karlstad    Agrrrinent    (lOoC)),   287 

Ka^:^,  Xifis:  his  relation^  willi  Chris- 
tian   IV  of  Denmark,    kk) 

Katerina,  Countess  Palatine:  educates 
Charles    X   of   Denmark,   210 

Kateriu:i  Jrigtlloiiici,  (Jui-cu  of  Sweden: 
favor-   the  Catholic  C"hnrch,    1(14 

Kemp:    (.-xiilMralion-    of,    334 

l-'.cpler,  joii.iun :  his  relalicjus  with 
'I'ycho    I'.ralie,    loS 

'  I'oi   riicrci.iLi  not  found 


Kerguelen,    Yves    Joseph    de :    explora- 
tions of,  332 
Ketilmundsson,     Mats :     persuades     the 
people     to     accept     Magnus     Smek, 
107 
Kettlesson,     Erik:     leads     the     Swedish 

forces,  121 
Keidens,   Van :    aids   geographic   science, 

305 
Kexholm :    surrender   of    (1597),    168 
Kiel.  Treaty  of   (1814),  254"!  258 
Kli>sov:  battle  of   (1702),  216 
Knaerad.    Treaty   of    (1613).    176 
Knights"   House:   see  RiddarJius 
Kni])perdolling.    Bernhard:    excesses   of, 

155 
Knud,   son   of  Gorm  den   Gamle :   death 

of,  28 
Knud    (II)    the   Great,   King  of   Scandi- 
navia   and     Britain:     reign    of,    31; 

adds    X"t)rway   to   his    empire,    56 
Knud    (IV),   Saint,   King  of   Denmark: 

reign    of,   71;    death    of,   J^i 
Knud   V,   King  of   Denmark:   his  strug- 
gle for  the  throne.  So 
Knud  VI,   King  of  Demnark :   reign  of, 

83;   his  relations  to  Slesvig,  2(>6 
Knud    Illaford,   King   of  the    Obotrites : 

career  of.  76,  266 
Kolbjornsson,   Hans:    defends   Frederik- 

sten,  223 
Kolbjornsson,  Peder :  defends  Frederik- 

sten,  223 
Kolding:   the   relief  of   (1849),  271 
KcJnigsmark,     Otto :     his     campaign     in 

Ciermany,    212 
Konigsmarck,      Aurora:      her      relations 

with    Charles    XH    of    Sweden,    21^) 
Kri^tina   of    Holstein-Gottorp,   Queen    of 

Sweden:   marriage   of,    174 
Krogh,     General:     in     the     Sle>vig-i  lol- 

stein    War,   272 
Krum])e,    Otto:    riMumands    the    Danish 

army,    141,    148 


Lapps:  the  progenitors  of  the  moilern, 
(j;    driven   out   by   the   Colh-,   35 

I.ange,  Villuni  :  at  the  diet  of  Copen- 
hagen.  232 

un.lcr    K,  hyok    under    C 


I  N  D  K  X 


365 


Larg?:  battle  of   (en.   1261),  100 
Lassen,  Captain :  at  the  battle  of  Copen- 
hagen, 256 
Leahy:  battle  of  (1389),  121 
Lech:  battle  of  the   (1632),  181 
Leif    Eriksson :    introduces    Christianity 
into   Greenland,   47;    discovers  Vin- 
land,  49 
Leipzig:    capture   of    (1642),    187 
Leopold,    Archduke :    at    the    battle    of 

Breitenfeld,   187 
Levenhaupt,     Adam:     his    campaign     in 

Russia,  219 ;   execution  of,  228 
Liakhov :  explorations  of,  306 
Liberation,   War   of    (1S13),   268 
Liemar,     Archbishop     of     Bremen :     his 

quarrel  with  Erik  Ejegod,  74 
Lindskold,       Erik :       aids       reform       in 

Sweden.  212 
Livonian    Knights   of   the    Sword :    tlieir 
dispute    with    Valdemar    (II)     Scjr, 
86 
Liwenthaal,  Alexander :   associated  with 

the   Wellman  Expedition,  340 
Lockwood :   explorations   of,  319 
London,    Treaty   of    (1852),    273 
Lot,   ]\Iichael :    aids   Frobisher,  301 
Lotliair    (II)    the    Saxon,    Holy   Roman 
Emperor:  honors  Knud  Illaford.  76 
Louis   (I)   the  Pious.  Holy  Roman   lun- 
peror :    his    efforts    to    convert    tlie 
Northmen,   25 
Louis    (IV)   the  Bavarian,  Holy  Roman 
Emperor:      Valdemar     IV     at     the 
court  of,   114 
Louis     (IX),    Saint,    King    of    France: 

solicits    Hakon's    aid,   99 
Louis    XIV,    King    of    France:    his    re- 
lations with  Sweden,  211,  218;  Den- 
mark  takes   up   arms   against,   234 
Louis   XV,   King  of   France :   enters  the 

Treaty   of   N'ymphenberg,   227 
Louisa  of  England,   Queen   of  Denmark 

and   X^orway :    sketch  of,   239 
Louisa  of  Mecklenburg,  Queen  of  Den- 
mark    and     Norway :     extravagance 
of,_  237 
Louvaine:   l^attle  of    (891   a.d.),  23 
Liiheck :    attacked    by    Christopher,    131 
Liibrck,    Chronicle    of:    quoted,    120 
Liibeck,  Treaty  of   (1629),  201 
l/.md:   battle  of    (1676),   212 
Lutheran    Cliurch:    esta1)!is]ied    in    Den- 
mark,  194 


Lutke.     h'edor    Peirovitch :    explorations 

of.   317 
Liitzen:  battle  of   (1632).   182 
Lykke.    Ivar:    leads    the    Danish    forces. 

121 


M 


jMcClintock,  Sir  Francis  Leopold: 
searches  for  Franklin,  311 

AlacKenzie,  Sir  Alexander:  explora- 
tions of,  307 

Mads,  Bishop  of  Strangniis :  execution 
of,   149 

Magnus  (I)  the  Good,  King  of  Norway 
and  Denmark :  secures  the  Danish 
throne,  33 ;  secures  the  Norwegian 
throne,   =,y 

Magnus  (HI)  Barfod,  King  of  Nor- 
way :  reign  of,  97 

Magnus  (IV)  Sigurdson,  King  of  Nor- 
way :  defeat  of,  80 :  reign  of,  98 

]\Iagnus  (VI)  Lagabaeter,  King  of  Nor- 
way :   reign  of,   100 

IMagnus  (VII)  Smek.  King  of  Norway: 
see  Magnus  fll)  Smek.  King  of 
Sweden  and   N'orway 

Magnus  (I)  Ladulaas.  King  of  Sweden: 
his  quarrels  with  Valdemar,  104; 
reign    of.    T05 

Alagnus  (11)  Smek,  King  of  Sweden 
and  X'orway :  his  reign  in  Norway, 
100;  reign  of,  107;  compelled  to  re- 
nounce   the    ihrnnr,    108 

Magnus,  son  of  l')irger  of  Denmark: 
death  of,   107 

Magnus,  son  of  Niels  of  Denmark: 
sketch   of.  76 

Magnus.  Duke  of  b'ast  Gothland :  in- 
vested with  his  ducln-,  160;  insanity 
nu    163 

Magnus.  Johannes.  Archbi-^hop  of  Up- 
sala:  his  "  History  of  the  Goths  and 
Swedes."  8 

]\Iaguus.  Ilenrik'^cn.  Prince  of  Den- 
mark:  in\a(]cs   Sweden,   102 

Alala-.Spina,  (iermanicus  de:  in  Sweden, 

M;ill<'t.    Paul    Henri:    in    Denmark.    2(0 
MaluK"),  Truce  of   fiHjS),  270 
Alannadatlt-r,   Katlirrinc :   skctcli  of,   163, 


ii66 


INDEX 


Margaret,  Queen  of  Denmark,  Norway 
and  Sweden:  marriage  of.  lOO,  117; 
reign  of.   119;  death  of,  125 

Margaret  of  Pomerania,  Queen  of  Den- 
mark :    becomes    regent.   96 

Margaret,  daughter  of  Saint  Erik :  ac- 
cusations  against,   98 

Margrete  of  Bohemia :  see  Dagmar, 
Queen  of  Denmark 

Margrete  of  Norway,  Queen  of  Scot- 
land :  sketch  of,  100 

Margrete  of  Sweden,  Queen  of  Norway: 
marriage    of,   97 

Maria  of  the  Palatinate,  Queen  of 
Sweden:   marriage  of,    174 

Maria  Eleanora  of  Brandenburg,  Queen 
of  Sweden  :   character  of.  204 

Markham,  Sir  Clement  Robert :  ex- 
plorations  of,   313 

Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  Duke  of : 
his  relations  with  Charles  XI T  of 
Sweden,   218 

jMarshmen  (Ditmarshers)  :  origin  of 
the,  138 

Marta,  Queen  of  Sweden :  plots  to  de- 
stroy the  princes,   106 

Martens,  Frederick :  aids  geographic 
science,   305 

Matthiac.  Johan,  Bishop  of  Striingniis : 
educates    Christina,    204 

Maximilian,  Prince  of  Wurtemborg: 
with   Charles   XII   of   Sweden,  215 

Mazeppa,  Ivan :  his  alliance  with 
Charles    XII   of   Sweden.   219 

Meldorf:  the  sack  of   (1500),  139 

Menshikov,  Prince  Alexander  Danilo- 
vitch :  at  the  battle  of  Poltava, 
220 

Meza,  General  de :  in  the  Slesvig-llol- 
stein   War.  274 

Michelsen,  Christian:  the  king  refuses 
the  resignation  of,  286 

Michelsson,  Jons:  influences  the  Swed- 
ish   peasants,    151 

Middendorf:    explorations    of,    317 

Midsunde:    ^iege    of    (1850).   272 

Mikkelsen.  llans:  publishes  a  Danish 
New    'i'estament,    103 

Mikkelsen,    Niels;    j)ersecution    of,    197 

Mohammed,  Clrand  Vi/ier:  defeats 
Peter    the    Cireat,    221 

Moltke,  f.cneral :  in  tlie  Slesvig-IIul- 
^te^n    War,   271 


Moore.   Sir  John:  aids   Sweden,   251 
Moritz,    Landgraf    of    Hesse:     Charles 

IX's  relations  with,   172 
Morncr,   Baron   Karl   Otto:    mission   of. 

253 
Mortensen,    Klaus:   preaching   of.    193 
Moss,   Convention  of   (1814),  261 
Munk,    Kristine,    Countess    of    Slesvig- 

Holstein :    sketch  of,  202 
Munk,  Peder:  his  relations  with  Chris- 
tian IV  of  Denmark.  199 


N 


Nadod :  visits  Iceland,  44 

Nansen,    Fridjof:    explorations   of,   325 

Nansen,  Hans:  at  the  diet  of  Copen- 
hagen, 231 

Napoleon  (I)  Bonaparte,  Emperor  of 
the  French :  Gustavus  IV's  attitude 
toward,  250;  his  relations  to 
Sweden,  253;  his  relations  to  Den- 
mark. 257 

Napoleon  III  (Charles  Louis  Napoleon 
Bonaparte),  Emperor  of  the 
French:  in  the  Slesvig-Holstein 
controversy,  276 

Nares,     Sir     George :     explorations     of. 

Narva:  battle  of   (1700),  216 

Nathors:   explorations  of,  ;^27 

Nelson,  Horatio,  Viscount :  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Copenhagen,  255 

N^ew    Siberia    Islands:    discovered,    317 

Newnes,  Sir  George:  sends  out  Ant- 
arctic expedition,  334 

Nibclungcnlicd,  The:   account  of.  9.    13 

Nicholaus,  l^ishop  of  Oslo:  founds  the 
Croziers.  98 

Nicholaus  Albinensis:  see  Adrian  IV. 
Pope 

Niebnhr.  Kar.^tens :  Bcrnstorf  sends  to 
Arabia,   240 

Niels  I,  King  of  Detmiark :  reign  of, 
■/S ;   death  of.  yy 

Night  Caps  (Nattmosser)  :  partv  of, 
226 

Nikol.ius,  grandson  of  Valdemar  II: 
invested  with  Bleking  and  Holland, 
91 

Nilsson.  Carl:  death  of,    lof) 

Nissa    River:   battle   of   the    (1064),   67 


INDEX 


367 


Njord,  King  of  Sweden:  the  legend  of, 

35 
Norbert,    Archbishop    of    Bremen :      his 

sway  extended  over  Denmark,  78 
Norby,    Soren     (Sevcrin)  :    defeats    the 

LiJbeckers  and  Swedes,  140;  in  the 

Swedish    Revohition,    153;    supports 

Christian  II   of  Denmark,   192 
Nordenskiold,  Nils :   his  explorations  in 

the  Arctic,  315;  his  explorations  in 

the  Antarctic,  336 
Nordlingen:   battle   of    (1634),   186 
Normandy:   the  original   foundation  of, 

IS,  42 
Northeast    Passage:    accomplished,   316 
Norroena    Mai :   the  language   of   Scan- 
dinavia, 8 
Northern   Maritime  League,  250 
Northern  War,  The  Great   (1700-1721), 

214 
Northmen :  sources  of  knowledge  of 
the,  7;  the  character  of  their  ex- 
peditions, 13;  ravage  Germany  and 
France,  22;  efforts  to  Christianize 
the,  25 ;  in  Russia,  39 ;  settle  in 
Normandy,    42;     discover    Vinland, 

49 

Norvegicus,  Laurentius :  summoned  to 
Rome,  165 

Norway :  legendary  history  of,  2>7  i  un- 
der the  Ynglingar,  51;  Adam  of 
Bremen's  description  of,  63 ;  before 
the  Union  of  Calmar,  97;  at  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  141; 
made  a  free  elective  monarchy,  192 ; 
made  a  dependency  of  Denmark, 
196;  in  the  age  of  political  revolu- 
tion, 247 ;   independence  of,  287 

Norwegian   Question,  The,  261,  281 

Nova  Zcmbla :  discovered,  301 ;  circum- 
navigated, 315 

Novgorod:  taken  by  the  Swedes  (1611), 

173 

Nymphenberg,  Treaty  of    (1741),  227 
Nystad,  Peace  of   (1721),  226 


O 


Odin,  King  of  Denmark  :  the  le<2;end  of, 

9,    17 
Odo     (Endes),     King    of     France:     the 
election  of,  23 


Oehlenschlager,    Adam    Gottlob:    sketch 

of,  264 
Oeland:  battle  of   (1676),  212 
Ohthcre :  his  conversations  with  Alfred, 

7,  40 
Olaf    (I)    Hunger,    King   of   Denmark: 

made    Duke    of    Slesvig,    72;    reign 

of,  7Z 
Olaf  II,  King  of  Denmark  and  Norway: 

reign  of,  100,   119 
Olaf  (I)  Trygvasson,  King  of  Norway: 

reign  of,  54 
Olaf   (II)    Saint,  King  of  Norway:  his 

influence    on    ancient    customs,    8; 

reign  of,  56 
Olaf    (III)    Kyrre,    King    of    Norway: 

forms  an  alliance  with  Knud,  72 
Olaf     IV,     King    of     Norway:     chosen 

joint   king,    97 
Olaf  V,  King  of  Norway:  see  Olaf  V, 

King  of  Denmark  and   Norway 
Olaf    (I)    Tractelje,    King    of    Sweden: 

the  legend  of,  2)7 
Olaf   (II)    Skiit-Konung,  King  of  Swe- 
den :    defeats   Olaf  Trygvasson,   55 ; 

reign  of,  58 
Olaf,    Prince   of    Norway:    defeated    by 

Erik  Blodoxe,  52 
Olauf,  King  of  Dublin :   career  of,  43 
Oliva,   Peace  of   (1660),  210 
Olmiitz,  Treaty  of   (1S50),  272 
Opdam,   Admiral :    relieves   Copenhagen, 

209 
Orkney  Islands :  visited  by  the  Romans, 

298 
Orosius :   Alfred's  translation  of,  7,  299 
Oscar  I,  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway : 

accession    of,    260;    in    the    Slesvig- 

Holstein  controversy,  270;  reign  of, 

277 
Oscar    II,    King   of    Sweden:    reign    of, 

279 
Oslo,  Diet  of  (1388),  120 
Ostmanni :   ravage  the   British  coast,    16 
Other :  voyages  of,  299 
Otto    (I)    the  Great,   Holy  Roman   Em- 
peror: the  charters  of,  29 
Otto   IV,   Holy  Roman   Emperor:   seeks 

an   alliance   with   ]])enmark,  85 
Otto,  Prince  of  Denmark :  a  prisoner  in 

Holstein,   114 
Otto,  Count  of  Scliaumburg:  his  claims 

on   Holstein,   135 


368 


INDEX 


Oxe,  Peder :  sketch  of,  197 

Oxcnstierna,  Count  Axel :  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  V\'ar,  186;  leads  the  aristo- 
crats, 204 

P,  Q 

Palnatoke :  career  of,  30 
Pan-Scandinavianism :  the  sentiment  of, 

2G4,  282 
Pappenheim,   Gottfried   Heinrich,    Count 

of:  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  182 
Paris:    siege  of  (SS5-886  a.d.),  23 
Parker,     Sir    Hyde:    at    the    battle    of 

Copenhagen,   255 
Parrow,    Henrik:    leads   the    Norwegian 

forces,   121 
Parry,    Edward :    explorations    of,    306, 

307 

Paschal  II,  Pope:  grants  a  Scandi- 
navian  archbishopric,  75 

Patkul,  Johan  Reinhold :  execution  of, 
219 

Patriotic  Democratic  Party :  formed, 
282 

Paul  I,  Emperor  of  Russia :  death  of, 
256 

Pary,    Octave:    explorations   of,   319 

Payer.   Julius   von:   explorations   of,  318 

Peabody,  George :  aids  Arctic  expedi- 
tion,  312 

Peary,  Robert  E. :  discovers  Indepen- 
dence Bay,  296;  explorations  of, 
320 

Pecklin,  Count:  plots  to  assassinate 
Gustavus,   249 

Pedersen,    Kristen :    sketch   of.    193 

Persson,  Goran :   death  of,   1G3 

Pet,   Arthur:   explorations  of,  301 

Peter  (I)  the  Great,  Emperor  of  Rus- 
sia :  in  the  Great  Northern  War, 
214.   219;    sends    out   Bering,   305 

Peter  III,  Emperor  of  Russia:  his  re- 
Iritifjus    v/ith    Deiunark,    240 

Peter  1   Land  :  discovered,  333 

}'etri,  Laurtnlius:  Gusta\-us  Vasa  sup- 
port-,   155;    (Icatli   of,    165 

i'etri.    (Jlan-::    Gustavus   Vasa    supports, 

I. '5 

I'cNinanu,      (jcnerrd :      defends      Copen- 

lia,i;iii,   j^G 
Philip    (ilj    Angu'-tn-,   King  of   b'rance : 

his  dispute   with   Knud,  84 


Philip,    Duke    of    Suabia :    seeks    an    al- 
liance  with    Denmark,   85 
Philippa,    Queen    of    Denmark,    Norway 

and   Sweden :   sketch  of,   127 
Phipps :    exploration   of,   30O 
Piccolomini,  Prince  Octavio :  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Breitenfeld,  187 
Pimentelli,   Antonio:   favorite  of   Chris- 
tina,  205 
Piper,  Karl,  Count:  favorite  of  Charles 
XIV  of  Sweden,  214;  urges  peace, 
216 
Plancius,  Peter:  promotes  expedition  of 

Barentz,  302 
Pless,  Sigfrid  von:  hires  out  the  Danish 

army,   235 
Polar    Research,    History    of,    293 
Poltava:  battle  of   (1709),  220 
Pomerania :    annexed   to   Denmark.  83 
Poniatowski :      influences      the      sultan 

against  Russia,  221 
Poole:  explorations  of,  304 
Poppo,  Bishop :  baptizes  Svend,  29 
Posse,  Count  Arvid :  ministry  of,  279 
Prague,    Treaty   of    (1866),   275 
Pruth,   Peace  of  the   (1711),  221 
Punitz:   battle  of   (1704),  217 
Pytheas :    his    account   of   the   north,   3, 

297       _ 
Queen     Elizabeth's     Forehead:     discov- 
ered, 301 


R 


Rae,  John :  explorations  of,  309 

Ragwald  Jarl :  won  to  the  cause  of 
peace,  59 

Ramillies:   battle  of    (1706),   218 

Rantzau,  Daniel :  in  the  Seven  Years' 
War,    1G2 

Rantzau.  Count  Johan:  defeats  Christo- 
pher of  Oldenburg,  104 ;  his  cam- 
paign in  Ditmarsh,  196 

Rantzau-Ascheberg,  Schack  Karl, 

Count:  his  relations  with  .Struen- 
sec,   241 

Reduction:  Charles  XIV  granted  the 
right  of,  212 

Reformation,  Tiie :  in  Sweden,  155;  in 
Driunark,   190.  203;   in    Norway,    106 

Reguir  Lddbrog,  King  of  Denmark:  the 
legend   of,    19 


INDEX 


369 


Rehnskiold,  Carl  Gustaf,  Count  of:  at 
the  battle  of  Franstadt,  217;  at  the 
battle  of  Poltava,  220 

Reinhard,  Marthi:  preaches  in  Copen- 
hagen, 190 

Resenius :  services  of,  8 

Reuterholm,  Gustaf  Adolf,  Baron:  pro- 
motes  a   Russian   alliance,   250 

Rhyming  Chronicle :   quoted,   109 

Ribbing,  Count  Adolf  Ludwig:  plots 
the    assassination    of    Gustavus,    249 

Richard  (I)  the  Fearless,  Duke  of 
Normandy:  Harald  Blaatand  aids, 
30 

Richardson :    explorations    of,   307 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  du  Plessis, 
Cardinal  and  Duke  of:  his  treaty 
with  Sweden,   i8l 

Riddarlius:  Gustavus  Adolphus  inrai- 
gurates  the,  178;  augmentation  of 
the,  205;  Charles  XII  charges  with 
the    public    administration,    225 

Riga :  captured  by  the  Swedes,  179 ; 
siege  of   (1700),  215 

Riji,  Corneliszoon :  explorations  of,  302 

Rikissa,  Queen  of  Sweden :  marriage  of, 
103 

Rink:  excesses  of,  155 

Risbrich,  Captain :  at  the  battle  of 
Copenhagen,  256 

Robert  (I)  the  Frisian,  Count  of  Flan- 
ders :  forms  an  alliance  with  Knud, 
72 

Roda  Boken,  165 

Roeskilde,   Peace  of   (1658),  208 

Rognvald,  Jarl  of  Maere :  sketch  of,  42 

Rolf  (Rollo),  Duke  of  Normandy:  his 
treaty  with  Charles  the  Simple,  15; 
sketch  of,  42 

Rolf  Krake,  King  of  Denmark:  the 
legend  of,   18 

Romana,  Marquis  de  la:  in  Slesvig- 
Holstein,  257 

Romer,   Ole    (Olaus)  :   sketch   of,  235 

Ross,  Sir  James :  his  explorations  in 
the  Arctic,  308;  his  explorations  in 
the  Antarctic,  333,  334 

Ross,  John :  explorations  of,  308 

Rud,  Otte :  defeats  the  Lubeckers  and 
Swedes,   140 

Rudolph  II,  Holy  Roman  Emperor: 
protects  Gustaf,  164;  patronizes 
Tycho  Brahe,   198 


Runcberg,    Johan    Ludwig:    sketch    of, 

264 
Runes :  description  of,  9 
Rurik:  settles  in  Russia,  39 
Russia:    the   Varingjar    settle    in,   39 
Russo-Japanese  War    (1904),  2S6 
Russo-Turkish    War     (1736-1739),    227 
Ruyter,    Alichel    Adriaanszoon    de :    his 

campaign  against  the  Swedes,  209 
Rye,    General :    in    the    Slesvig-Holstein 

War,  271 


Sadowa:  battle  of  (1866),  275 

Saemund :   sketch   of,  8 

Sagas,  The :  main  treatment,  7 ;  Yng- 
lingar,  37;   Eyrbyggja,  45,  49 

St.  Germains,  Treaty  of   (1679),  212 

St.  Knud's  Guild,  76 

Saint-Severin :   negotiations  of,   227 

Samkiv :  explorations  of,  306 

Sanderson's    Hope :    discovered,   302 

Saxo  Grammaticus:  his  "History  of 
Denmark,"  7,   17 

Scandinavia,  History  of:  the  primitive 
north,  3 ;  sagas  and  eddas — medi- 
aeval chronicles,  7;  the  emergence 
of  Denmark,  16 ;  Christianity  in  the 
far  north,  25;  Harald  Haarfager 
and  Scandinavian  expansion,  34 ; 
kings  and  heroes  of  the  Ynglinger 
line  in  Norway,  51;  rise  of  the 
church  in  Denmark  under  the 
Estridsens,  67;  Denmark's  age  of 
glory  under  the  Valdemars,  80; 
Norway  and  Sweden  before  the 
Union  of  Calmar,  97;  Denmark  and 
the  Union  of  Calmar,  no;  a  cen- 
tury of  Danish  domination,  126; 
Gustavus  Vasa  and  the  Swedish 
Revolution,  147;  the  rise  of  Sweden 
into  European  prominence,  161 : 
Gustavus  Adolphus  and  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  175;  Denmark  in 
eclipse,  iSg;  Sweden's  advances  in 
acquisitions  and  prestige,  204 ;  the 
Great  Northern  War  and  the  de- 
cline of  absolute  power,  214;  be- 
nevolent despotism  in  Denmark, 
230;     Scandinavia     in     the     age     of 


370 


INDEX 


political  revolution,  247;  Slcsvig- 
Holstein,  265 ;  constitutional  gov- 
ernment in  the  three  kingdoms,  267 

Schimmelmann,  Count :  ministry  of,  240 

Sclilegel,  Johann  Heinrich:  in  Den- 
mark, 240 

Schleppegrell,  General :  in  the  Slesvig- 
Holstein    War,    271 

Schley,  Winfield  Scott:  rescues  the 
Greely  party,  320 

Schulenberg,  Johan  Alatthias,  Count :  at 
the  battle   of   Punitz,   217 

Schumacher,  Peder :  see  Griffcnfcld, 
Pcder   Schumacher.   Count 

Schwatka,  Frederick :  commands  Frank- 
lin search  party,  314 

Scoresby,  William :  exploration  of,  in 
Arctic   seas,  315 

Scotland:  invaded  by  Hakon,  99 

Scott,  R.  F. :  commands  P)ritish  Na- 
tional   Antarctic    Expedition,    334 

Scottish    Antarctic    Expedition     (1903), 

Seven   Years'  War,  228 

Seven  Years'  War,  Scandinavian,  162, 
196 

Siberia:   sketch   fjf,  317 

Sidon :  Sigurd  Jorsalafari  at  the  cap- 
ture of,  97 

Siegfried  :  at  the  siege  of   Paris.  23 

Siegric,  King  of  Lcire :  driven  from  his 
throne.  21 

Sigbrit:   influence   of.   191 

Sigismund,  Holy  R(jman  Emperor: 
Erik  appeals  to.   126 

Sigisnnmd  (III)  Vasa.  King  of  Poland 
and  Sweden:  elected  to  the  throne 
of  Poland,  166;  his  reign  in 
Sweden,  168;  deposed  from  the 
throne  of  Sweden,  171  :  at  war  with 
Guslavus   Adolphu-.    179 

Sigrid,  (laughter  of  J'Irik  XIV:  sketch 
of,    164 

Sigtrygg,  King  of  T.inicrick:  e-^tabli^hcs 
his    kingdom.   43 

Sigurrl,  King  of  Sl<aania  and  llie  Danish 
Elands:    the   legend    of,   20 

Sigurd,  Prince  of  Xorwav :  defeated  bv 
l-.rik   P,lodr,xe,  52 

Sigurd,  iirctcndcd  '-r)n  of  Magnus  Ilar- 
fo(l  :   carcc  r  of.  '>X 

Sigurd  Jarl:  at  tlie  Drontheim  Thing, 
53 


Sigurd  Jorsalafari,  King  of  Denmark : 
career  of,  97 

Sigurd  Ring,  King  of  Deimiark :  at  the 
battle  of  Bravalla,   19 

Simpson,   Thomas :   explorations   of,  309 

Sinclair,   Malcolm:  murder  of,  227 

Sineus :  settles  in  Russia,  40 

Sirovotskov :   explorations   of,   306 

Six   Weeks'    War,   275 

Skandersborg:  battle  of   (1841).   114 

Skiold.  King  of  Denmark:  the  legend 
of,  17 

Skioldungs :  founders  of  the  dynasty  of, 
9 

Skraelingar:  attacks  of  the,  49 

Skytte,  Johan :  educates  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,   175;  leads  the  democrats,  204 

Slaghoek,  Didrik :  provokes  the  blood 
bath  of  Stockholm,  149;  regent  of 
Sweden,    152 

Slesvig:  burned  by  Ilarald  Haardrade, 
67;  Olaf  invested  with,  '/2;  incor- 
]iorated  with  Denmark,  226,  236; 
battle   of    (  1H48),   270 

Slesvig-llolstein :  Kuud  lllaford  in- 
vested with.  76;  bestowed  on  Al- 
bert, 85;  its  union  with  Denmark, 
135:   the  Iii.Uory  of.  265 

Slesvig-iiolstcin  Wars:  lirst,  95;  1412, 
124;    1848,   270;    1864,  274 

Snn'tli,  ?^laxwell  ].:  number  of  the 
Welhnan    Expedition,    341 

Smith.  William:  his  discoveries  in  the 
Antarctic.    t,?i3 

Snorre    Sturleson :    sketch   of.   8,   99 

Sofia.  Queen  of  Sweden:  divorce  of. 
104 

Sofia  Amalia,  Queen  of  Denmark  and 
Xorw.ay :   the  position   of,   230 

Sonunar.  ?^Iagnus.  P)i>hop  of  Str;ingn;is: 
at   the   diet    of   \''ester;ias.    158 

Sophia  of  ]\lecklenl>u.rg.  Queen  of  Den- 
mark and  Norway:  sketch  of,  I09. 
200 

Soijhia  Mag<lak'ua  of  Kulnibaih-l'ay- 
reuth.  Queen  of  Deuinarlc  and 
Xorwav :    sketch   f)f.   238 

.Sjiarrt'.    l~.rik :    the   punisluneiit    of,    idfi 

Sj)arre.  General:  ;il  the  siege  of  (.'njieu- 
liagen,   joo 

Stagneliiis,    I'.rik    Julian:    '-keteli    of,    ^'(14 

Siruigebro:    l>attle    of    (150^),    170 

Stanislaus      (I)      Leczinski.      King      of 


INDEX 


371 


Poland :  his  election  to  the  throne 
of  Poland,  217 

Steen,  Johannes  Wilhelm  Christian : 
government   of,   285 

Stenbock,  INIagnus :  at  the  siege  of 
Copenhagen,  209;  defeats  the 
Danes,  221 

Stenkil,   King  of  Sweden:   reign  of,   loi 

Stettin,   Peace  of   (1570),   166 

Steg,  Marshal:  death  of,   no 

Stockholm :  foundation  of,  104 ;  battle 
of  (15 18),  140;  the  blood  bath  of 
(1520),  149;  taken  by  Gustavus 
Vasa,  m4 ;  revolutionary  uprisings 
in    (1848),  277 

Stoerkodder.  King  of  Denmark:  the 
legend  of,  18 

Stolbova,    Peace   of    (1617),    177 

Strabo :  his  ridicule  of  Pytheas,  4 

Stralsund :    Charles   XII    defends,   222 

Stralsund,  Treaty  of    (1370),   118 

Strindberg,  Dr. :  attempts  to  find  the 
North    Pole,   2,2-7 

Struensee,  Johan  Frederick,  Count  von : 
career  of,  241 

Stuhm:  battle  of   (1629),   iSo 

Sture,  Sten :  proclaimed  regent  of 
Sweden,  134;  defeated  by  Ilans, 
138;   death  of,    139 

Sture,  Sten,  the  Younger:  becomes  re- 
gent of  Sweden,  140;  his  war  with 
the  archbishop's  party,  148;  death 
of,   141 

Sture,  Svante :  made  regent  of  Sweden, 
140 

Sturleson,  Snoore :  see  Snoore  Sturle- 
son 

Succession,  War  of  the  Spanish,  215, 
238 

Svane,  Hans,  Bishop  of  Sjaelland:  at 
the    diet    of    Copenhagen,    231 

Svend  (I)  Tveskacg,  King  of  Den- 
mark: baptism  of.  29;  his  detesta- 
tion of  Christianity.  30 ;  reign  of, 
31  ;    defeats    Olaf    Trygvasson.    55 

Svend  (II)  Estridscn,  King  of  Den- 
mark: befriended  by  Magnus  the 
Good,  ^z  '•  his  ecclesiastical  policy, 
60,  68 ;   reign   of,  67 

Svend  (III)  lu'ik.  King  of  Denmark: 
his    struggle    for   the   throne.   80 

Svend,  King  of  Norway,  son  of  Knud 
the  Great:   reign  of,  32,  S7 


Svend   Aagescn :   see   Aagesen,    Svend 
Sverdrup :    explorations   of,   327 
Sverdrup,     Johan :     leads     the     patriotic 

democratic  party,  282 
Sverker     Karlsson,     King    of    Sweden : 

reign  of,  loi,  103 
Sverre,  King  of  Norway :  career  of,  98 
Svold :   battle   of    (1000),  56 
Sweden :      legendary     history     of,      34 ; 
Adam    of    Bremen's    description    of, 
63 ;    before    the    Union    of    Calmar, 
97;  revolts  against  Erik.  127;  at  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  142;  dis- 
solves    the     union     with     Denmark. 
154;     rises     into     European     promi- 
nence,     161 ;      her      relations      with 
France,  227;  in  the  age  of  political 
revolution,   247;   constitutional   gov- 
ernment in,  277 
Swedish    Revolution    (1520-1560),    147 
Sweyn,    King   of    Denmark:    see    Svend 
Tveskacg,   King  of  Denmark 


Tacitus,   Cornelius:    his   account    of   the 

barbarians,  7 
Tagesons,    Ilenrik :    in    the    Danish    re- 
volt,  130 
Tasman,    Abel    Janez :    explorations    of, 

332 
Tast.   Hermann :   preaching  of,   193 
Tausen,    Hans:    preaching   of,    193 
Tcholyuskin :    explorations    of,    305 
Tcgner,   Esaias :   sketch   of,   264 
Thangbrand :    his    mission    in    Norway, 

56 
Thomas,  Junker :   sketch  of.   154 
Thorgny :     compels     Olaf     Sk;it-Konung 

to    yield,    59 
Thorlcif    the    Wise:    his    knowledge    of 

law.  47 
Thorn:    taken    by    the    Swedes     (1703"), 

216 
Thorolf-Mostrar-Skcgg:     the    saga    ac- 
count  of  his   settlement   of   Iceland, 
45    _        _ 
Thorstcin    F.riksson :    in    Vinland,    49 
Thorwald    j-'riksson :    in   Vinland,   49 
1'liule:     Pytlica^'s    account    of,    4,    297 
Thuresson,        Thure        (the        Peasant's 
Butcher)  :    cruelties   of,    134 


372 


INDEX 


Thyra,   Queen   of  Denmark :    sketch   of, 

28 
Thvra,    Queen    of    Norway :    death    of, 

Tilly,  Johann  Tscrclaes,  Count  of :  in 
the    Thirty   Years'    War,    181,   201 

Tilsit,   Treaty  of    (1807),   251 

Tjumen:    founded,   317 

Tobiesen :    explorations   of,    315 

Tobolsk:  founded,  317 

Toll,  Baron  von:  explorations  of,  318 

Tonningen :   siege  of   (1700),  214 

Tordenskiold,  Peder  Vessel :  seeks 
Charles  XII  of  Sweden,  222; 
sketch   of,    237 

Torkel,  Knutsson :  regency  of.   106 

Torstensson,  Lennart,  Count  of  Ortala: 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  187;  re- 
signs   the    command,    188 

Trolle,  Gustaf,  Archbishop  of  Upsala : 
supports  Christian  II  of  Denmark, 
145;   supports   Didrik   Slaghoek,   152 

Truvor:  settles  in  Russia,  40 

Tulliot,  Henri:  associated  with  the 
Wcllman    Expedition,   340 

Turin:  taken  bv  Prince  Euyene  (1706), 
218 

Type  Quarrel,   The,  236 

Tyrisval:  battle  of  (983  a.d.),  58 


U 


Ulfeld,     Eleanor     Kristinc:     sketch     of, 
202,  230 

Ulfeld,    Kocfitz :    influence    of,    202;    at 
the    Swedish   cor.rt,   207;   ilees   from 
Denmark,  230 
E'lfilas,    Saint:    his    (jotliic   gospels,   9 
l'ltlif)t,   C'liisliuition   of    (030   A.   d.  ),   290 
Ultljot:    studies    the    laws    of    Norway, 

4^' 
I'llcrup:   battle  nf    CrS49),  271 
Ulrica,  Queen  of  Sweden:   accession  of, 

225 
Ulrica   f'^lcanora  of   Denmark,   Queen  of 

Sweden  :    marriage    of,    212 
Utiion,  Act  r.f    (  iXr:; ),  -Jii 
Uimi,    Arrlibihhop    of    Uremen :    mission 

of,  28 
UY'-ala   P>urning,  The,  36 
Upsala   Alota:    adoption   of,    168 


Uranienborg:    description    of,    198 
Urban    II,    Pope:    his    relationship    with 

Erik  Ejegod,  74 
Usselinx,    William :    founds    the    South 

Company  of  Sweden,  179 


Vadstena,  Diet  of   (1526).   155 

Valdemar  (I)  the  Great,  King  of  Den- 
mark :  his  struggle  for  the  throne, 
80;  reign  of,  8i;  his  relations  with 
Slesvig,   266 

Valdemar  (II)  Sejr,  King  of  Denmark: 
subdues  the  Slesvig  revolt,  84; 
reign  of,  85;  aids  Sverker  Karlsson, 
103;  death  of,  90;  his  relation  to 
Slesvig,  266 

Valdemar  (III)  Atterdag,  King  of 
Denmark :  his  relations  with  Mag- 
nus   Smek,    108;    reign    of,    114 

Valdemar,  King  of  Sweden :  reign  of, 
103;  forced  to  renounce  the  crown, 
105 

Valdemar,  Prince  of  Denmark:  taken 
captive  by  Henry  of  Schwerin,  87; 
death  of,  91 

Valdemar,  Prince  of  Sweden :  plots  of, 
106 

Valdemar,  Duke  of  Slesvig,  son  of 
iCrik  :  confirmed  in  his  duch}',  95 

Valdemar.  Duke  of  Slesvig:  placed  on 
the   l^anish   throne.    113 

Valdemar,  Duke  of  Slesxig.  son  of 
Abel :    retains   his   duchy,   95.   266 

Valdemar,   Bishop  of  Slesvig:   revolt  of, 

.S4 
Varberg:   siege  of    (1569).   162 
Varingjar     (Varings)  :     expeditions     of 

the.   3Q 
Vasa.    Gustaf    E.riksson:    see    Gustavus 

(\)    Vasa 
Vasa,     E,rik    Johansson :    execution    of, 

U9 
Vedel,  Anders  S(")renson :  sketch   of,    198 
Verela,    Treaty    of    (  [700).    240 
Vergennes.    (h.arlt's    (ir;i\'ier.    Ci)unt    de : 

in    Stockholm.   220,   247 
Vessel,   Peder:   see  Tordenskiold,   Pcdcr 

Ve-^^el 
Vesteraas:   battle  of    (1521),   153 


INDEX 


373 


Vesteraas,  Diet  of  (1527),  IS5 

Vesteraas   Recess   (1527),   IS^ 

Viborg:  battle  of   (ii57),  80 

Victoria   Land :    discovered,   333 

Victualing  (Vitalen)  Brotherhood,  The, 
122 

Vienna,    Congress    of    (1814-1815),    258 

Vienna,  Treaties  of:  (1814),  254; 
(181S),  267;    (1864),  275 

Vikings :  age  of,  12 ;  in  Northumbria, 
20;  in  Russia,  22;  lay  siege  to 
Paris,  23;  in  Ireland,  43;  settle  Ice- 
land, 44 

Vilhelm,  Bishop  of  Roeskilde :  his  re- 
lations  with    Svend    Estridsen,   68 

Villemoes,  Captain :  at  the  battle  of 
Copenhagen,    256 

Villeroi,  Frangois  de  Neuville,  Due  de: 
defeated   at   Ramillies,   218 

Vilmanstrand :   battle  of    (i74i)>  228 

Vinland :   the   discovery   of,   49 

Vogg:  fivenges  the  death  of  Rolf 
Krake,  18 

Vohaire  (Frangois  Marie  Arouet)  :  his 
estimate  of  Charles  XII  of  Sweden, 
224 

Vordingborg,   Peace  of    (143S),   127 


w 


Wallenstein,     Albrecht     Eusebius     von, 

Duke     of     Friedland,     Mecklenburg 

and    Sagan:    in    the    Thirty    Years' 

War,    180,   201 
Walo,     Abbot     of     Corvey:     introduces 

Anscarius  to  the  emperor,  26 
Walpole,      Robert,      Earl     of      Orford : 

ministry   of,   226 
War  of   1643-1645,  202  note 
War  of  Clubs    (Klubbekriget),   170 
Warsaw:    battle   of    (1656),   207;    taken 

by   the    Swedes    (1702),   216 
Waymonth :    explorations    of,    303 
Weddell :    explorations    of,   333 
Wedmore,  Treaty   of    (879  a.d.).   iS 
Welhaven,    Johan    Sebastian    Cammer- 

meycr :    sketch   of,   264 
Wellman,   Walter :    explorations   of,   339 
Wellman    Airship    Expedition,   339 
Wends :   description  of  the,  39 ;   ravages 


of  the,  67;  invade  Slesvig,  76;  con- 
version of  the,  81 

Wergeland,  Ilcnrik  Arnold  Thaulow : 
leads   the   patriotic   party,   262,   264 

Wergild:  description  of  the,  12,  41  note, 
71 

West  Indian  Islands,  Danish :  slave 
trade    declared    illegal    in,    255 

Westphalia,  Treaty  of   (1648),  188 

Weyprecht,  Charles :  aids  scientific 
polar   research,  318 

Whitelocke,  Bulstrode :  at  the  court  of 
Christina,   205 

Willses,   Charles :   explorations   of,   334 

William  (I)  the  Conqueror,  King  of 
England :  Svend  Estridsen  de- 
mands tribute  of,  68 

William  (III)  of  Orange,  King  of 
England :    aids    Sweden,   215 

Willibrod :   the  mission   of,  25 

Willisen,  Wilhelm :  in  the  Slesvig-Hol- 
stein   War,   272 

Willoughby,  Sir  Hugh :  his  expedition 
for  the  exploration  of  Arctic  re- 
gions, 300 

Wisby:  captured  by  Valdemar  IV 
(1361),  115 

Witte,  Cornelius  de :  relieves  Copen- 
hagen.  209 

Wittstock:  battle  of   (1636),   186 

Wollaston   Land :   discovered,   310 

Wolmar:  battle  of  (1219),  86 

Wrangel,  Count  Karl  Gustaf:  in  the 
Thirty    Years'    War,    188 

Wrangel,  Count  Friedrich  Heinrich 
Ernst:  in  the  Slesvig-Holstein 
controversy,   270 

Wrangell,  Baron  Ferdinand  Petrovich 
von :    explorations    of,    317 

Wulfstan :  his  conversations  with  Al- 
fred,  7,   40;   voyages  of,  299 

Wynecken.  General :  in  the  Siesvig- 
Holstcin   War,   271 


X,  Y,  Z 

Ynglingar:    founder    of,    35;    kings    and 

heroes  of,  51 
Ziegenbalg:   his   missinn   in   India,   237 
Ziegler,    William:    supports   polar   expe- 
dition,  22'S 


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